Indigenous knowledge is often defined as a systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people through the accumulation of experiences, informal experiments and intimate understanding of their environment in a given culture (Warren, 1991). It is a sum of experience and knowledge for a given group that forms the basis for decision of making with regard to familiar and unfamiliar problems and challenges. It is also local knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society, and it is the basis for agriculture, health care, food preparation, education, environmental conservation and a host of other activities. Much of such knowledge is passed down from generation to generation, usually by word of mouth. Indigenous knowledge is also known as local knowledge, people's knowledge, folk's knowledge, traditional knowledge, traditional wisdom, non-western knowledge and traditional science.

In the past, when the economy was subsistence oriented, people depended heavily on their immediate environment to meet most of their basic needs. Therefore they interacted closely with their local environment and thereby gained a sound knowledge and understanding about the environment and its underlying ecological processes. Since they heavily depended on the local resource base for their basic needs, without such a knowledge and deep understanding about the environment, survival was virtually impossible. It was the indigenous knowledge of environment that formed the foundation for decision-making on most of their day to day activities and livelihood strategies. This knowledge was passed down from generation to generation through various informal methods of traditional education until the traditional education was replaced by the present modern education in the recent past.

The modern education, as it happened in many Third World countries, was introduced during the colonial period with the objective of producing administrators, clerks, teachers, and interpreters etc., and the education was based on alien knowledge systems - scientific knowledge - which have evolved and developed in the western industrialized world. In the modern education system, there has been no place for either indigenous knowledge or indigenous methods of education. It was assumed that indigenous knowledge was irrelevant, unscientific and outdated, and therefore no attempts were made to integrate indigenous knowledge into the modern education system. Indigenous knowledge was rejected without making any attempt to test its validity and potential value in solving contemporary problems.

Therefore, indigenous knowledge is now increasingly disappearing. Now it remains only in the memory of some old-age people who live in remote rural areas of the Third World countries. With their death, indigenous knowledge will be lost forever. However, now there is a growing recognition of its potential value in environmental management and sustainable development. Therefore, it would be wise to take immediate steps to collect and document the remaining indigenous knowledge and to integrate it into modern eduction. Such an action would ensure the safe delivery of the remaining indigenous knowledge to the next generation so that it could be used for the benefit of their future. The present paper is an attempt to define the concept of indigenous knowledge and highlight the significance of the integration of indigenous knowledge on environment into environmental education.

Indigenous knowledge and science
Perhaps, the best way to understand the meaning of the term indigenous knowledge is to understand the difference between indigenous knowledge and non-indigenous knowledge - scientific knowledge - that most of us are familiar with. Therefore, at first, it would be wise to examine the distinction between indigenous knowledge and science. Scientific knowledge is generated by professional scientists through systematic scientific research and experiments, whereas indigenous knowledge is generated by local people through their day-to-day experience in facing the challenges of nature and society. Local people, too, undertake research and experiments, but in contrast to professional scientists, they do research as a part of their daily struggle to survive while working to earn their living. Scientists undertake research in laboratories or experimental farms etc. in artificially created conditions whereas local people conduct research under natural conditions in farms or any other places where they usually work.

Scientific knowledge that is generated by professional scientists is often documented whereas indigenous knowledge mostly remains undocumented. It is embedded in culture in various forms such as cultural practices, customs, traditions, religious and spiritual beliefs, rituals, ceremonies, folk stories, folk songs, legends and proverbs. Therefore, indigenous knowledge is a part of the culture of the given community. Unlike scientific knowledge, indigenous knowledge is implicit and cannot be understood by outsiders, because unlike science it is not standardized. Science is standardized and expressed in global terms whereas indigenous knowledge is non-standardized and expressed in local terms. Hence, indigenous knowledge, in general, does not move out of its location of origin whereas science moves out and spreads globally. Therefore, science claims to be a system of global knowledge whereas indigenous knowledge is location-specific and is considered to be less applicable outside its original locality.

Location-specific
Indigenous knowledge is a knowledge system which has evolved in a given locality, and it describes how to face the challenges of nature and society in the locality of its origin. Therefore, most of the indigenous knowledge is the knowledge of a given location, and therefore it, in its existing form, cannot be generalized and globalized. It is the knowledge of subsistence whereas science is the knowledge of market economies. Indigenous knowledge-based technologies were designed for small scale production to meet family needs. But on the other hand, science-based technologies were designed for mass production to cater national and global markets. People in subsistence economies produce to meet their family needs without attempting to dominate nature and exploiting it excessively. They developed technologies which act in harmony with nature. However, science enables people to dominate nature and exploit natural resources excessively to produce in large scale to meet market needs.

Scientists explore nature and societies in order to identify laws which describe relationships between various phenomena and seek explanations for the identified relationships. Subsequently they build theories which are then used for making predictions and designing technologies - the practical applications of knowledge. Local people, too, similar to scientists, explore nature and societies within the geographical boundaries of their communities, but unlike scientists, they do not search for detailed explanations. Therefore, the identified relationships mostly remain as beliefs. As long as the beliefs perform to the level of their expectations, it is not necessary for them to seek rational explanations. Hence, unlike science, indigenous knowledge is full of beliefs which have not explained in rational terms. Indigenous knowledge is irrational and descriptive, whereas science is rational and analytical.

Indigenous environmental knowledge and traditional education
Knowledge about the environment had been inevitable for human survival throughout the history of human civilization. In hunting and gathering societies, without a good knowledge of forest and wildlife - plant and animal species, their growth environments and habitats, growth cycles, behaviour of animals in relation to their environment, specific characteristics of plant and animal species and their uses - survival was virtually impossible. In the same way, in farming societies, deep understanding about the local natural base and ecological processes leading to the regeneration of environmental resources, e.g. soil fertility and water, was sine qua non. Local people, both men and women, by interacting with their immediate environment over centuries, have gained and enormous volume of knowledge about their environment. Their knowledge involves not only environmental resources available within the locality, but also how to manage the resources sustainably.

Local farmers use local terminology and classifications to identify the variations of the physical elements of the local environment such as soil, forest, landscape and land-use etc. For instance, they have developed their own soil classifications based on the knowledge which they have gained by interacting with soils over centuries. They identify various soil types, physical and chemical characteristics of each soil type and the crop species which are suitable for each type. They also classify the forest in relation to their current and potentials uses and values and identify each type with local terms. Local women who are responsible for the supply of food, fuelwood, fodder and medicine etc. for domestic needs, closely interact with their immediate environment to meet these needs. By interacting with the environment, they have developed a wide knowledge about those environmental resources, their management and sustainable use.

The indigenous environmental knowledge developed by local people has passed down from generation to generation throughout human civilizations. The avenue through which indigenous knowledge is passed from one generation to another is known as traditional education. Traditional education is the process by which the society gradually absorbs or socializes its youths into its norms, religious beliefs and moral values as well as collective opinions of the whole society (Callaway, 1973). Both adults and children are informally involved in the traditional learning process through ceremonies, rituals, imitations, recitation and demonstration. It is a method of informal education which is based on a wide range of cultural items such as folklore, folk drama, folk story, songs, village meetings, taboos and superstitions etc. All these are parts of indigenous knowledge, and people learn them, practise them and teach them to the next generation. Thus, indigenous knowledge is passed down from generation to generation.

Traditional education was strongly oriented towards the environment. As it was pointed out earlier, environmental knowledge was necessary for the very survival since the people almost exclusively depended on their local environment to meet all their needs. Therefore, top priority has been given to the environment in traditional education. However, the environment lost its priority in education when the traditional informal education was replaced by modern formal education during the colonial period, because environmental education was seen as less important to achieve the prime objectives of the colonial education: to produce administrators, clerks, teachers etc. Furthermore, the formal school education which is often confined to classrooms resulted in the separation of children from their environment. The teacher-centered nature of formal education also separated children from their parents, and consequently parents became unable to pass their knowledge about environment that they developed and inherited to their children. The people’s knowledge is not taken into account when curriculum is prepared.

Significance of integration of indigenous knowledge with environmental education
Environmental education is defined as education on the environment, education in the environment and education for the environment (Chambers, B., 1996). According to this definition, while education on the environment is concerned with environmental knowledge and understanding, education in the environment is concerned with using it as a resource for inquiry, the development of skills and direct experience. Education for the environment is concerned with the development of values and attitudes, such that direct and positive action, based on broad, balanced information. It seems that indigenous knowledge has the potential capacity to contribute to all these three aspects of environmental education: education on the environment, education in the environment and education for the environment.

It is widely accepted that if any kind of education is to be effective, the philosophy of ‘from the known to the unknown’ should be adopted. In the case of education about the environment, therefore, it is wise to start with the knowledge about the local environment which pupils are familiar with, and then gradually move to the knowledge about regional, national and global environments. Indigenous knowledge can play a significant role in the education about the local environment. As mentioned already, in most societies, there are enormous volumes of knowledge about their local environments which local people have developed over centuries by directly interacting with the environments: a knowledge about soil, climate, water, forest, wildlife and mineral etc. in the locality. This ready-made knowledge system could easily be used for the education about the local environment if appropriate measures are taken to tap the indigenous knowledge about the local environment which remains in the memory of local elderly people.

As it was mentioned earlier, indigenous knowledge is stored in culture in various forms such as traditions, customs, folk stories, folk songs, folk dramas, legends, proverbs and myths etc. Use of these cultural items in schools as resources or tools for environmental education would be very effective in bringing the environment alive to pupils. It would allow pupils to conceptualize about places and issues not only in local environment but also beyond their immediate experience. Pupils are already familiar with their culture, and therefore they would find it interesting to learn about environment through those cultural item. It would enable the teachers to get the pupils’ active participation in teaching about environment. Hence, the use of those cultural items in environmental education would make education about the environment an attractive subject. Teachers may use pupils to collect folk stories, folk songs, legends and proverbs etc. existing in the community which have potential value for environmental education.

Cultural items
With regard to the education in the environment, pupils are taken to the local environment so that they could learn about the environment through direct observations and investigations. However, education in environment calls for some prior knowledge and understanding about the local environment. For instance, to be able to understand the plants-soil relationship in the environment, they should be able to identify the plants and soil types in the local environment. One way to get a preliminary knowledge about plants and soil types in the local environment is to consult local people. In order to be able to learn from the local people, pupils have to talk to them and pick their local environmental knowledge. Local people, in identifying local environmental resources, e.g., soils and plants, as mentioned earlier use, various local terminology and classifications. Without a prior knowledge and understanding about the local people’s classifications and terminology, it would not be easy to pick the local people’s knowledge about their local environments. Therefore, education in environment calls for prior understanding about indigenous knowledge of local environment.

It is a widely accepted fact that local people in traditional communities have lived in harmony with their environment, and they have used environmental resources, without impairing nature’s capacity to regenerate them. Their actions in relation to the use of resources were not environmentally hazardous. It is the indigenous knowledge which has shaped the local people’s values and attitudes towards environment, and it is these values and attitudes which have guided their environmental actions and made them environment friendly. Therefore, it can be expected that environmental education through indigenous knowledge would help to inculcate good environmental ethics, values and attitudes among the pupils, and thereby promote a better quality of environment in the future.

Environment friendly
In view of its potential value for sustainable development, it is necessary to preserve the indigenous knowledge for the benefit of future generations. Perhaps, the best way to preserve indigenous knowledge would be the integration of indigenous knowledge into formal education which would reactivate its inter-generational flow. If indigenous knowledge is given a place in the school curriculum, it would compel the pupils to learn from their parents, grandparents and other adults in the community, and to appreciate their indigenous knowledge. Such a relationship between young and old generations would mitigate the generation gap and would help to develop an inter-generational harmony. On the other hand, local people for the first time, would get an opportunity to participate in curriculum, development. Integration of indigenous knowledge into school curriculum would enable the schools to act as agencies for the transfer of culture of the society from one generation to the next.

Though integration of indigenous knowledge into environmental education offers many advantages, any attempt being made to implement it would encounter a number of difficulties. Since indigenous knowledge is not documented, it is not readily available for teachers. On the other hand, indigenous knowledge is increasingly disappearing with the death of the present old age people — the bearers of indigenous knowledge. Therefore, at first, measures should be adopted for collection and documentation of indigenous knowledge. Then, the collected and documented indigenous knowledge should be appropriately included into the text books on environmental education.

COLOMBO -- The sun has just set over the mighty Indian Ocean as I settle down to write this column on my IBM laptap at the Taranga Terrace, Ceylon Intercontinental's open air restaurant-cum-bar in Colombo, the capital of Sri Lanka. The sea waves lash at the rocks with all the fury at their command, making sounds that are music to my ears.

Having grown up in a village in Andhra Pradesh with no access to the sea, and living in India's capital New Delhi, I have come to love the sea and the mountains. And watching the sun set over the sea is my favourite hobby whenever I am in a port city.

Of all the Indian Ocean islands I've been to, Sri Lanka is my favourite. Yes, Seychelles, Mauritius and the Maldives have their own charm. But they aren't anything like this beautiful little island-nation, where the people are so courteous and the girls so charming!

Arrested at Ratnapura!
Thanks to my professional work, I've been coming here since 1982, when I'd rushed here to cover the anti-Tamil riots at Ratnapura near here and promptly got arrested! It took me a couple of hours to convince the Sinhala policeman who nabbed me (while photographing a burnt-out Tamil shop) that I wasn't an Indian Tamil on a mission to export terrorism.

That nearly caused a diplomatic row between the two countries. The news of the arrest was in the Indian papers the next day, and an angry parliamentarian demanded to know how dare the Sri Lankans arrest an Indian journalist who was only performing his professional duties.

A quick reprimand from the office of then President J. R. Jayewardene (with whom I had an appointment the next day) even as the policeman was getting ready to lock me up for the night along with petty criminals won me my freedom. But the fellow wouldn't let me go unless I had a drink of "arrack" (a strong local brew) with him and assured him that all was forgiven and that we were friends!

In the 16 years since then, I must have been here at least 20 times. And I'm always looking for an excuse to come here again. And again. This time, it's the 10th summit of the seven-nation South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), and the mini summit between Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee and his Pakistani counterpart Nawaz Sharif-the first since the two countries went nuclear in May this year.

Indo-Pak mini summit
The Vajpayee-Sharif summit attracted a good deal of global media attention. More than 300 mediamen representing the world's best known TV and radio networks, magazines and newspapers from across the globe turned up to cover the "historic" event. Predictably, there was chaos when they trooped into a hall at the Taj Samudra, where the two prime ministers spoke to them separately, one after the other.

The outcome of the meeting was anything but sepctacular. The two leaders decided that the dialogue between their foreign secretaries-snapped 10 months ago-should resume. But nobody was complaining. Most of the journalists came here because this is a tropical paradise. The summit was just an excuse!

A "Newsweek" reporter asked the Pakistan Prime Minister if he shares the world's fears that Kashmir may lead to a nuclear war in South Asia. A grim-faced Sharif said: "Let's not talk about wars, but about how to settle our problems through negotiations.

Of course, I don't believe there's going to be a nuclear war between India and Pakistan, never mind what Pakistan's Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub Khan says. The reason is simple: Neither country can afford such a foolish war because it will destroy them both.

Indeed, there was much bonhomie between Vajpayee and Sharif. The Indian leader broke the ice by telling Sharif: "Ah, I've been looking forward to seeing you!" He said that in Hindustani, a mix of Urdu and Hindi widely spoken in northern India and Pakistan, and made popular by Bollywood movies. The hour long one-to-one dialogue continued in that language. And both men described their encounter as "good."

Chandrika steals the show
The person who clearly stole the show at the SAARC inaugural function was Chandrika Kumaratunga, the amiable and dimple-cheeked president of Sri Lanka. Hers was easily the best speech, delivered with much finesse. Of all the women leaders in the subcontinent today, this gutsy, Sorborne-educated lady is easily the best. I'd put her in the same category as Margaret. Thatcher and the late Indira Gandhi.

The only thing that troubles me is that she's put on a good deal of weight since she came to power four years ago. Ah, says a Sri Lanka friend, "that's because she doesn't care about her weight anymore. She likes the good things of life and loves to live it up." Being on the hit list of the Tamil Tigers and cooped up in that official residence-so what if Temple Trees is a fabulous home?-I guess she is entitled to some relaxation.

An Elephant for the president!
Oh, I must tell you about this baby elephant Vajpayee gave Chandrika as a present. The six-year-old Chamarajendra grew up in the Mysore zoo. He was brought here by ship a couple of months ago. He'll be groomed to assume onerous responsibilities as the head elephant of the famous Tooth Relic Temple at Kandy, and lead all the prestigtious processions at Buddhist ceremonies.

Incidentally, those tasks were performed by an elephant gifted by the late Indira Gandhi to Sirimavo Bandaranaike a couple of decades ago. But he died recently, and this nation of 18 million people went into mourning for him. The Indian high commissioner even laid a wreath on his government's behalf!