• The Russian tea market
• J. R. Jayewardene and the Golden age of Tamil Separatism
• Need for a National Bicycle Plan

The Russian tea market
By Dr. J. B. Kelegama

Russia has in recent years become the largest market for Sri Lanka's tea. Its purchases increased from 13.8 million kilos in 1994 to 46.5 million kilos in 1996 and 54.8 million kilos in 1997. It purchased direct in 1997 about 20.4 per cent of the total volume of Sri Lanka's tea exports; this quantity was valued at Rs. 9.803 million or 23 percent of the total export value. Russia according to tea circles buys another 7.7 - 10.0 per cent of Sri Lanka's tea via re-exports from Turkey, United Arab Emirates and others. Thus Russia and other countries of the former Soviet Union purchase as large as 28 to 30 per cent of Sri Lanka's tea exports. In the first half of 1998, Sri Lanka exported 27.6 million kilos of tea direct to Russia, which even exceeded the 26.3 million kilos exported in the first half of 1997. It is these heavy purchases of Russia that have been instrumental in raising the average auction price of tea from Rs. 65.12 per kilo in 1994 to Rs. 119.40 in 1997 and Rs. 139.00 in the first half of 1998 and contributed to Sri Lanka's economic growth.

The second and third largest markets for Sri Lanka tea exports, curiously enough, are Turkey and the United Arab Emirates. The exports to Turkey rose to 34.2 million kilos in 1997 or 12.7 percent of total exports. Turkey is a tea producing and exporting country and such a rapid rise in imports cannot be explained by increased consumption. Similarly tea exports to United Arab Emirates increased to 20.6 million kilos in 1997 or 7.7 per cent of total tea exports. Consumption of tea could not have increased so sharply in a matter of few years to warrant such a large rise in tea imports particular to a small country. The increased tea purchases by these two countries in Colombo was obviously for re-export to another country - Russia and other countries of the former Soviet Union.

Russian Tea Imports
Although Russia (including former countries of the Soviet Union) is Sri Lanka's largest tea market now, Sri Lanka is not Russia's main supplier of tea. International Tea Statistics for 1997 are not yet available, but those for 1996 show that nearly half of Russia's tea imports came from India and nearly a quarter only from Sri Lanka. In any case India and Sri Lanka are Russia's main sources of tea imports accounting for nearly three fourths. Russia buys smaller quantities from Indonesia, China, Bangladesh, Argentina and Georgia which are all tea producers and further from Europe - Poland, Germany and Netherlands especially - which not being producers are actually re-exporters. Total tea imports of Russia and former Soviet Union countries or Commonwealth Independent States in 1996 accounted to 155,095 metric tons (or 155.1 million kilograms) of which 118,520 metric tons or 76 per cent were by Russia, as shown in the table.

Of the 118, 520 metric tons of tea imported in 1996, Russia had re-exported to 7,425 or 6.3 per cent.

Russia's tea imports from Sri Lanka increased between 1994 and 1996 more rapidly than from other countries as shown in the table. Thus while imports from Sri Lanka increased by 164 per cent, those from India rose by only 73 per cent, from China by 64 per cent and from Indonesia by 34 per cent. Small quantities imported from Argentina have nearly doubled whereas imports from Bangladesh, Georgia, Europe and others have declined. Georgia which is a part of the former Soviet Union has ceased to be an important tea supplier to Russia: imports from Georgia have fallen by 41 per cent to 2,908 metric tons or 2.5 per cent of total imports. Purchases from re-exporters in Europe have declined by more than half mainly because of high prices as will be shown later.

Exporters' Figures
Russia's tea import figures vary much from the export figure supplied by the suppliers as shown in the second table. India, for example, exported 45,913 metric tons to Russia in 1996, whereas Russia's import figures indicated 58,564.

J. R. Jayewardene and the Golden age of Tamil Separatism
By Kamalika Pieris
(Continued from yesterday)

(5) The legislative power of the Region would be vested in the Regional Councils which would be empowered to enact laws and exercise executive powers in relation thereto on certain specified listed subjects including the maintenance of internal law and order in the Region, the administration of justice, social and economic development, cultural matters and land policy. The list of subjects which will be allocated to the Regions will be worked out in detail.

(6) The Regional Councils will also have the power to levy taxes, cess or fees and to mobilize resources through loans, the proceeds of which will be credited to a consolidated fund set up for that particular Region to which also will be credited grants, allocations or subventions made by the Republic. Financial resources will be apportioned to the Regions on the recommendations of a representative finance commission appointed from time to time.

(7) Provision will be made for constituting High Courts in each Region. The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka will exercise appellate and constitutional jurisdiction.

(8) Each Region will have a Regional Service consisting of (a) officers and other public servants of the Region and (b) such other officers and public servants who may be seconded to the Region. Each will have a Regional Public service Commission for recruitment and for exercising disciplinary powers relating to the members of the Regional Service.

(9) The armed forces of Sri Lanka will adequately reflect the national ethnic position. In the Northern and Eastern Regions, the Police forces for internal security will also reflect the ethnic composition of these Regions.

(10) A Port Authority under the central government will be set up for administering the Trincomalee Port and Harbour. The area which will come under the administration of the Port Authority as well as the powers to be assigned to it will be further discussed.

(11) A national policy on land settlement and the basis on which the government will undertake land colonization will have to be worked out. All settlement schemes should be based on ethnic proportions so as not to alter the demographic balance subject to agreement being reached on major projects.

(12) The Constitution an other laws dealing with the official language Sinhala and the national language, Tamil, be accepted and implemented as well as similar laws dealing with the National Flag and Anthem.

(13) The Conference should appoint a committee to work out constitutional and legal charges that may be necessary to implement these decisions. The government would provide its secretariat and necessary legal offices.

(14) The consensus of opinion of the All Party Conference will itself be considered by the United National Party Executive Committee and presumably by the executive bodies of the other Parties as well, before being placed before Parliament for legislative action.'' (Ratnatunga p 333-4)

The APC of 1984 was a flop. So India then arranged another set of talks at Thimpu in the state of Bhutan in 1985. By this time Indira Gandhi had been assassinated and Rajiv Gandhi was the Prime Minister. Thimpu talks are significant for two very important things. Firstly, Thimpu was the venue for the first ever formal talks between the Sri Lanka government and the Tamil guerrilla parties. TULF, PLOT, LTTE, EPRLF, TELO and EROS participated. TULF took a back seat and the guerrilas were seated in the front rows. The Sri Lanka delegation was a motley one composed of hand picked lawyers as negotiators and other officials as observers. (Ratnatunga p 357-8)

The second important thing was that the Tamil separatist movement was thus able to enunciate their Thimpu Principles. These principles were:

1. Recognition of the Tamils of Sri Lanka as a nation.

2. Recognition of the existence of an identified homeland for Tamils in Sri Lanka.

3. Recognition of the right of self determination of the Tamil nation.

4. Recognition of the right of citizenship and fundamental rights of all Tamils who look upon the island as their country home.''

Having stated their argument for Eelam in this manner, the Tamil militant groups declared the Thimpu discussions a waste of time and all went home.

Thereafter India forgot about all party discussions and went for a solution with the Sri Lanka government. There came the unsuccessful 'Delhi Accord' suggested by India, which was rejected by the Tamil parties. In the meantime, the LTTE were still fighting the north. They even got ready to declare an independent state in 1987. (de Silva & Wriggins p 629) Having no alternative, and in view of the anger of the general public, JR decided to wipe out the LTTE militarily. 'Operation Vadamarachchi' got going. The campaign took about 10 days, during which the army lost only 29 men. The LTTE just ran away, losing between 100 to 110 men in the process. It was clear that they were not as invincible as everyone including themselves had thought. The LTTE forces had fled in such disorder that they were completely demoralised by the end of May 1987. Brigadier Vijaya Wimalaratne had stated that the LTTE could have been defeated decisively at that stage if the Indians had not intervened. (de Silva & Wriggins. p 630-1)

But the Indians did intervene. Athulathmudali had declared: ''The Indians came in only because we were winning. They wanted to make it impossible for us to win, and impossible for the Tamils to get Eelam. Their purpose was to use our acute problem, which they helped to intensity, in order to get us to change our policy on several points.'' (de Silva & Wriggins p 631) The Tamilnadu government gave a well publicised monetary grant to LTTE and its allies. The Indian government sent in food to Jaffna, against Sri Lanka's wishes violating Sri Lanka's air space. The Indian Air Force, in blatant violation of international law, used five Indian Antonov 22 transport planes escorted by four Mirage 2000 combat planes, to drop 22 tons of food and medical supplies in Jaffna. (de Silva and Wriggins p 631). There was no reaction from other major powers over this. America told JR to settle his quarrel with India. They would not interfere.

After this India virtually thrust the Indo-Lanka Accord at JR. Sri Lanka had to promise not to renew its attacks on the LTTE who thus temporarily became a sort of protected species. Some agreement had to be reached about the broad recognition of Tamil rights in a pluralistic society and the devolution of authority to Tamil dominated ethnic areas. And India was going to over see all this. (de Silva & Wriggins p 633) JR had apparently given an interview at this time to one Prof Azar from the USA where he had stated that Sri Lanka has prepared to discuss the alleged grievances of the Tamil community, and also set up a Boundary Commission to determine the boundaries of the Northern and Eastern Provinces. (de Silva and Wriggins. p 634)

The signing of the Indo Lanka Accord was violently opposed by the JVP, SLFP and the sangha. The Cabinet gave its assent but Premadasa had openly opposed it. JR had got cold feet and had wanted the signing postponed, but India had refused to do so. (Island. 21.12.97 p 14)

The Indo-Lanka Accord included an agreement that Trincomalee or any other ports in Sri Lanka would not be made available for military use by any country in a manner prejudicial to India's interests, and that the restoration and operation of Trincomalee oiltank farm would be undertaken as a joint venture between India and Sri Lanka. (de Silva & Wriggins p 642) India apparently has done nothing about the oiltank farm, and it has also not allowed Sri Lanka to rent this out to any other firm, such as Glencore Singapore Ltd. (Godage. Island 2.8.98 p 11)

The Indo Lanka Agreement resulted in two pieces of legislation which are important for the Tamil separatist movement. They were the Provincial Councils Act and Thirteenth Amendment to 1978 Constitution.

The 13th Amendment and the Provincial Council Bill which followed it were challenged in Supreme Court by groups of Sinhala nationalists. Supreme Court held that these did not violate the Constitution Ñ but with a narrow margin of five to four. The UNP MPs, except for one, Gamani Jayasuriya were quite ready to do JR's bidding and approve the Amendment, but they were afraid to do so. There were threats of violence from the JVP and others.

MPs had been threatened with death if they voted for the bills and were told not to return to their constituencies if they so voted. JR got them all down to Colombo and kept them in Oberoi Hotel with their families, lest they found excuses not to make it to Parliament on voting day. The MPs were transported to Parliament in buses like school children, with heavy police escort. The highway leading to the Parliament was crowded with Army and Air Force guards. Parliament was converted into a virtual fortress. (Ratnatunga p 382, de Silva & Wriggins p 659.) That is the frightened and undermoctratic manner in which the 13th Amendment was passed.

The 13th Amendment is important due to three reasons. This Amendment elevated Tamil to the level of an official language, on par with Sinhala. It affected the merger of the North and East. This is supposed to be a temporary merger, pending a referendum, but there have been allegations that India intended it to be permenent. Lastly, this region has been given an independent administration of its own through Provincial Councils. There is only one step more needed for Eelam to materialise Ñ the merger of the two Provincial Councils into one Regional Council, with the administrative centre at Trincomalee.

J.R. Jayewardene has assisted the Tamil separatist movement in many concrete ways. However the main contribution is that during JR's time, the unsubstantiated political demands of the Tamil minority have somehow acquired validity and now stand as a sort of holy truth, which cannot be questioned. A critical, examination of J.R. Jayewardene's role in Tamil separatism is urgently needed. He was a foolish President, and has left behind several dangerous legacies. He should have known to maintain good relations with India. Maintaining good relations with India is very easy for Sri Lanka. There are the cultural links, and a tradition of good relations between the heads of state. Contrast JR's bungling with the excellent relations Mrs. Sirimavo Bandaranaike had with Indira Gandhi.

(Concluded)

Need for a National Bicycle Plan
By Dr. Kolita Weerasekera
Senior Lecturer,
Open University of Sri Lanka

Cycling currently performs an important transport role within communities in many developing countries. Transport statistics in Sri Lanka in urban and rural areas show clearly that cycling is a popular and alternative mode of transport and is increasing in popularity with the ever increasing fuel prices. This is evident from the Urban Development Authority's feasibility report on traffic management and improvements of roads in Matara, which showed that approximately 50% of vehicle trips in Matara study area are made by bicycles. This can be the case in many coastal towns and areas with flat terrain (specially in the dry zone).

However there is relatively fewer data available on national bicycle usage to make any conclusive judgments. Nevertheless, various references indicate that approximately around 20% of rural trips are made by bicycles and more than 10% urban trips are done with bicycles. Furthermore, bicycle usage in some national towns are fast growing. It is therefore that planners, designers and managers determine what is needed for these road users on all existing and proposed roads in the network and move to provide necessary facilities.

The efficient transportation of people and goods in cities is essential if the economic and social needs of society are to be met. The modes of land transport which play important roles in satisfying these needs include trains, lorries, vans, private motor cars, buses, three wheelers, motor cycles and bicycles. The private motor cars and vans (lately), although preferred, are the most appropriate and favoured mode for many trips (by the community at large) for most trips in local towns. Next to this buses (public and private) play a major role in the national context. It can, however, have undesirable aspects in relation to traffic congestion, road safety, noise and air pollution. These impacts can be tackled to a greater extent with extensive use of local area traffic management techniques (as applied in some of the developed countries) and by giving serious consideration to noise attenuation measures in new road projects. If at all serious consideration is to be given to alleviation of noise; proper driver discipline and enhancement of driver psychology is most needed. As generally discussed by the visitors to the country and also most of us are well aware of - the baffling love of local drivers towards the horn. Probably this can be treated with a public awareness campaign such as a simple TV commercial with the anti-horn message might do the trick.

Quite rightly, there is a realisation in communities these days that it may not be possible or desirable to provide sufficient road space to completely meet the growing demand for travel by private vehicles and buses. Consequently, all over the world many highway planners and local authorities are either examining or implementing measures which may be used to achieve an acceptable balance between the transport and communication needs of communities and the need to maintain or enhance the amenity of residential areas, towns and cities. Some of the measures which may be introduced in future are:

1. The reduction of travel demand either generally or in specific locations by pricing policy, land use strategies, parking policy or restraints on system capacity;

2. Environmentally adapted through roads which may maintain existing traffic volume but at a reduced speed;

3. Exclusion of motor traffic from town or city centres in favour of pedestrian shopping precincts;

4. Continuing use of local area traffic management schemes and appropriate design of new residential areas to create pleasant and safe neighborhood environments;

5. Dedication of road space a specific users (eg. lanes for exclusive use by lorries, buses, car pools or bicycles);

6. Cleaner, quieter and more efficient motor vehicles;

7. Home based work utilizing computers and telephone lines.

Although the latter two options may be appropriate to countries with more financial stability, the first five options can be given serious thought in the local context. The management of traffic impacts on local towns is likely to require the use of the above measures to some extent. However, improvement in the short to medium term is likely to be achieved through implementing measures such as encouraging people to, use modes of transport other than the motor vehicle.

Cycling is a clean cost-effective and efficient mode of transport which is well suited to many of the trips currently made in cars and buses, particularly in inner urban areas with more level terrains (specially in coastal areas). Many motor vehicle trips, including journeys to work which are less than 10 kilometres - a distance which can be covered in many inner urban areas as quickly on a bicycle as in a bus, car or motor-cycle. An indication of the potential for cycling can be obtained from conducting relevant field studies. These surveys can be targeted to obtain information such as:

The proportion of all motorised trips less than 5 km or 10 km that could be made easily with bicycles;

The scopes and possibilities of attracting more school children and the current proportion of school children using bicycles for schooling;

The possibility of attracting long-distance travellers to the stations or bus-stands on bicycles (dual mode travel - eg. bicycles in combination with trains and buses);

The percentage of all trips where there is no objective constraint, such as the need for a motor vehicle during the day or to carry luggage, preventing the use of a bicycle.

Statistics obtained from such as these surveys could be used to confirm potential for the bicycle to provide a clean and efficient alternative mode for many current motor vehicle trips. In view of community concerns about health, about pollution and the environmental damage caused by motor vehicle emissions, the wider use of the bicycle should be promoted as a nonpolluting form of transport.

If significant numbers of people are to be encouraged to use bicycles instead of motor vehicles they need to be convinced that it is a reasonably safe, convenient, healthy and enjoyable way to travel. Moreover they need to feel that they are personally secure. Personal security is related to many aspects of society other than those associated with engineering and planning, but these disciplines should also consider the personal security of cyclists in the design and maintenance of facilities. This may relate to the provision of adequate lighting, maintenance of landscaping along paths, direction signs and the provision of frequent exit points from off-road paths to the street system.

Encouragement of cycling as a means of transport also requires comprehensive planning and the development of complementary programs dealing with education, enforcement, engineering and encouragement so that people chose to bicycle. It is also important to provide low interest bicycle loans arrange through banks, work places and various other organisations. It will also be more encouraging and attractive to the community in obtaining more modernized bicycles available in the outside market instead of the typical old fashioned local bicycles which are more tougher on legs.

In urban and rural areas cycling also can play an important part in recreation within the community. It contributes to the general health and well being of the community and is an excellent family activity for people of all ages. When provided as part of a system of linear parks bicycle paths provide a very good means for the public to take advantage of the recreational experiences offered by open space within metropolitan areas. Bicycle path systems also provide an environment in which the young or inexperienced can learn to ride away from motor traffic. Many of these people may then use their bicycles for non recreational trips.

Strategies for Developing a Bicycle Plan
Planning for cyclists should occur at many different levels from the development of broad policies and strategies to relatively small local projects. It should involve a commitment from all levels of government and input from the general public, bicycle associations and local bicycle groups. Every encouragement should be given to form and function local bicycle groups or associations at the local or regional level. The main goal of bicycle planning is to encourage cycling as a desirable alternative form of transport and to provide community and government programs which will provide for safe and convenient travel by bicycle whilst maintaining a satisfactory level of service for all other road users.

The development of strategies is important because they provide a framework and direction for the development and co-ordination of programs throughout government and should constitute a commitment to various initiatives and actions. They also provide for the integration of cyclists needs into all planning and design activities including commercial and industrial building designs, land development plans, subdivision plans, road designs and road maintenance programs.

Bicycle planning should therefore include:
Development of broad bicycle policies and bicycle strategies at National and Provincial levels. This should include all aspects of cycling, involves all relevant departments and local councils, and assigns responsibilities.

Development of local strategic bicycle plans on a local basis which sets local strategies and defines local bicycle networks.

Regional Bicycle Network plans could be established. These plans can be made use to identify local needs for programs, and also for road and path improvements.

The traffic-police assistance will be very important in developing the National Bicycle Strategy.

These strategies and plans may provide a statement of actions which are based on encouragement, education, engineering and enforcement.

National Plan for Cyclists
The National Bicycle Plan should recognizes the contribution which cycling makes to transportation as nation wide and the benefits which will be derived from greater use of the bicycle with respect to fuel consumption, traffic congestion, reduction in noise, urban air pollution, greenhouse gas emission, and improved public health.

The objectives of the National Bicycle Plan should be to:

Integrate cycling into the transport system and into urban planning as a legitimate mode of personal mobility;

Encourage more safe cycling in the community by targeting to reduce the rate of bicycle related crashes and the severity of injury to cyclists;

Improve the confidence in average cyclists in making a safe and quick journey;

Ensure that planning for cycling is integrated within overall transport and land use planning;

Give priority to those areas where demand for cycling is highest;

Ensure that cyclists have suitable and legitimate access to road space;

Develop behavioural and safety awareness programs aimed at improving cyclist safety in general;

Ensure appropriate legislative framework for cycling having regard to safety, good traffic engineering practice and credibility of the law;

Encourage cycling for the environmental, recreational and health benefits to cyclists and the wider community;

Co-ordinate the provision of cycling facilities and programs across relevant agencies and organisations;

Introduction of various insurance schemes for cyclists;

Provide guidance to encourage a high level of compliance by cyclists with traffic laws covering both educational and enforcement needs;

Investigation of new initiatives and conduct research.

The Plan also requires that 'proposals to, achieve these outcomes be assessed against specific criteria, including cost-effectiveness, feasibility and safety'. It also requires that all potential social, environmental and economic factors be considered.

Planning at the Local Level
At local level these plans could be incorporated in to more in detail. The purpose of these detail plans is to translate many of the aims of the local strategy into practical programs and projects at the local level. Local strategic bicycle plans should, however, concentrate on the development of solutions to problems which exist within the local council or region rather than deal with general issues. The issues should be more localised.

The basic aims of the local plans could usually include the following:

Survey the extent and nature of cycling within the municipality or region;

Determine the cycling requirements of the community;

Indicate factors that inhibit cycling;

Identify a practical bike way network;

Develop engineering measures and programs to overcome problems including estimated costs and an implementation plan;

Identify local requirements -for behavioural programs which are aimed at improving cyclist safety in general and in relation to specific local problem areas;

Develop encouragement programs;

Review law enforcement and compliance with local by-laws.

For the community to derive maximum benefit from its Local Strategic Bicycle Plan it is essential that the plan produce positive and practical affordable outputs. It may also be suggested that the development of these local strategic bicycle plans should be a combine effort by a Steering Committee comprised of representatives of; the local councils, council engineering and recreation staff, the relevant road authorities, the police, local schools. cyclists, bicycle retailers, the local community.