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Men and matters by Kautilya
SWRD was not a communalistA ‘cub’ straight out of Peradeniya campus was assigned by his Beiragedera bosses to "cover" the SLFP/Opposition leader for the Daily News — a privileged "round" since the office was held by Solomon West Ridgeway Dias Bandaranaike, a star of the Oxford Union. Now that "Sinhala Only" is widely regarded as the causa causans our present discontents, Mr. Bandaranaike was the No. 1. fall guy. He was no communalist — not a trace of racism in his conversation. Vanity yes, the vanity of the Oxford union star, the aristo, could never be totally suppressed. But no racial prejudice.
Nationalism, anti-colonialism unites the masses against the imperialist ruler who imposes his culture and his beliefs on the conquered. Differences of race and religion, and in this part of the world, caste were all divisive forces. S.W.R.D. knew all that but he doubtless felt he could control the forces he had unleashed. He was no cold-blooded cynic. If at all he was betrayed sometimes by an intellectual arrogance. And so, it is no surprise at latter day historians and campus pundits are so easily tempted to present Velupillai Prabhakaran as a creature of the ‘56 revolution. No wonder his daughter has made the resolution of our agonising ethnic conflict item I on her agenda.
Youth Revolt
The post-independence decades have alas produced two violent generational uprisings — one majority Sinhala (the JVP of Rohana Wijeweera from Ruhuna Rata) and the Tamil youth insurgency in the northern province led by Velupillai Prabhakaran, the name quite familiar to the newspaper reader in nearly every country. Each revolt has attracted the attention of the newspaper reader in most continents. It has also inspired many scholarly inquiries but I do not know of any that has examined both and given us a comparative study. Most of us are tempted to call one "race" and the other class". Not many readers of this national newspaper will know that A. Sivanandan, one of the first Tamil expatriates to find a new home in London launched a reputed journal named Race and Class. In a way, our two generational revolts in this little tropical paradise has been ravaged by two insurgencies, Sinhala in the deep south and a secessionist Eelam revolt in the north. Thanks to Prime Minister Sirima Bandaranaike I had a chance to talk to Comrade Rohana — an encounter which got me into trouble with Junius Rex, sorry Junius Richard Jayewardene many years later.Junius Richard, the spy master, had learnt that I had written Comrade Wijeweera’s radio script TV when he was a presidential candidate, challenging Junius Rex of Ward Place!
Kautilya cannot alas claim to have the privilege of a face-to-face with Velupillai Prabhakaran, who leads what a western expert has described as an outfit that excels in pure unbridled terror. But I was privileged to be the only reporter in a room in the Galadari when the supremo sent a LTTE delegation led by Mahattaya for talks with President Premadasa.
Mrs. Adele Balasingham apologised quite sweetly when I called for a beer — Australian, I had said. Liquor evidently is totally banned by the liberation movement. But the politburo took only 2 minutes to decide that an exception could be made for the Fourth Estate.
The space programmes of China, Japan and India:
The motivations and achievements
By Niranjan Dias BandaranayakeChina, Japan and India have all developed significant space programmes post 1945. It is interesting to compare and contrast each of these countries’ motivations and achievements with one another especially to see if any similarities or differences exist. In an attempt to assess this their, aims and the difficulties they faced in order to achieve these will be looked into It is interesting to see why these three countries developed space programmes, and assess why despite being in the same continent collaboration between the three countries did not occur.
Collaboration between the three countries initially did not occur possibly because each of the three countries have historical enmities amongst them. India and China ever since the Sino-Indo boarder incident in 1962 over the Lakdha province have remained hostile towards each other . Japan and China relations have been cautious of which can be traced back to the Mukden incident of 1931 or more importantly when China became Communist in 1949. Although recently with China’s attempt to commercialise its space technology, the Chinese have displayed their rocket in Tokyo as a step towards international collaboration in space. The collapse of the former Soviet Union has led some writers such as Mclean and Sheehan to claim that "some Chinese to begin thinking more seriously about the prospects of future conflict with Japan" if Japan decides to develop a military capability which it shows little sign of doing anyway. Japan and Indian relations have somewhat been neutral. Even then Japan did not look to India for help (nor vice-verse) The main reasons concerning the lack of collaboration amongst the three countries is because technology for space development initially, lay in the hands of the Superpowers and the West; and that they wanted to maintain an indigenous space programme. Consequently each of these countries leaned towards respective superpowers to get their space programmes of the ground.
The V2 Germans bombs made most countries aware of how rocket technology could help improve their weaponry system. China victim of this type of thinking was motivated to develop its space for programme military purposes. China’s space programme began to take momentum in the late 1950’s. It established its space programme in 1956. Dr. Quien Xue- Sen came back from the US, where he had gained experience in the army’s missile programme this was put to use in the development of the space programme. He suggested that China should establish its own "Defence Association Industry".
Initially Chinese space programme was being aided by the Russians. But due to tense relations after the death of Stalin and a clash of personalities between Krushev and Mao Tse Tung, Soviet Union withdrew its technical advisers in 1960. This prompted the Chinese to develop an indigenous space programme. Furthermore as a result of severance of relations with the Soviet Union whom China boarders with; China became acutely aware of how vulnerable it could be to the USSR if war was to break out. China itself has a vast land mass as does Russia. To be able to strike at the heart of Russia or any other countries if war was to break out then China would need the capabilities of a long range missile system. Furthermore it would require information of any attacks that might be launched against itself hence the motivation to develop a reconnaissance surveillance satellites which it can monitor the Sino\Soviet border with. It had a successful launch of a fully operational medium-range missile on 26th December of 1966 and a successful launch of sounding rockets in February 1970. Quite an achievement considering space programme was established in 1956.
Dr. Qian Sen wanted to develop satellite building and launching capabilities. Activities related to this plan were given the name Mission 581. A major component of Mission 581 was the call to build three satellite and launch design institutes. By August 1972 China’s achievements in space could be outlined in terms of firstly missile technology as tried and tested in 1966, 1970, and the first successful experimental flight of an inter-continental ballistic missile on 10 September 1971. Secondly in rocket launching technology with the Long March 1 (August 1972) which carried China’s first satellite into orbit; Storm 1 successfully launched, and with Long March 2 in November 1975 which successfully launched satellite launching capabilities. In May 1982 China launched a long range missile to the Pacific and later in the year (October) it successfully launched a missile from and underwater submarine. By February 1986 China had placed telecommunications satellite in geostationary orbit. Within the same year the reconnaissance satellite China -19 was launched by Long March 2 rocket and successfully recovered after five days.- By 1989 China had launched twenty five satellites, eleven of which were recoverable. The satellites had several purposes. They were used for monitoring the weather; telecommunications; remote sensing of natural resources; marine navigations; educational purposes; material purposes and bio-technology. Therefore it would appear that China was not solely motivated by military elements. Although more likely than not these were probably used to serve as a cover up for its military intentions.
Chinas’ achievements are quite significant when one considers the upheavals it has survived through. These have mainly been economical and political ones. Y. Chen divides then into three periods; the Anti-Rightist Campaign (1956) and the Great Leap Forward (GLF), the Cultural Revolution with the third period being between the years of 1977-86.
The Anti- Rightist Campaign focused on intellectuals and as such scientists were prone to scrutiny. Furthermore the GLF emphasised the need for national economic development. This had potential to have a negative impact on the space programme as its resources might have been diverted. However the space programme managed to survive both these movements by arguing that its programme was vital for national defence which General Secretary Deng Xiao-Ping continued to support as discussed at a Conference on Defence and Industry held at Bedai in July 1960. Hence as a motivation factor it can be argued that China needed a military motivation for its space programme to guarantee its survival.
The space programme was able continue under the Cultural Revolution because its success served the interests of the key political leaders. Zhou En-lai and Lin Bao of the "Gang of Four" supported the space programme because of the national prestige it brought on China in the international community. Hence it would appear that the military factor is not the sole motivation, prestige also had a key part to play for the development of Chinas’ space programme.
The outcome of the Cultural Revolution put the creation of the Academy of Space Technology in the hands of the military (CONSTIND). This was the result of the imposed martial law which appears to have had a positive impact as it tried to prevent struggles occurring in the space community, an element which the US nor GB were unable to avoid. This has encouraged efficiency within the space community, a significant factor in respect to its achievements in space.
The Third Phase of the Chinese space programme took place in the years between 1977-86. It was at this time that there was emphasis on social and economic restruction and less on space developments. Den Xio-Ping second in command insisted that space programmes should be "modest and practical". It was during this period that the Chinese space programme declined and morale of the workers was also very low as their pay and resources were cut. This was particularly noted in the years between 1977-80. This motivated the Chinese space community to adopt an entrepreneurial approach. It planned so that income would be generated from selling satellites and space launches. In May 1985 it announced to an international space conference in Geneva that it intended to market its Long March rocket for satellite launching services. Thus it would appear that the Chinese space programme had to be motivated to adopt an entrepreneurial approach in order to ensure its survival. Furthermore with the ending of the Cold War perhaps this has become an important motive and could possibly even replace the military objective. Although arguably India still poses a military threat to its boarders and although it’s not as serious as that of the former Soviet, it means China cannot totally rule out its military objective and, especially as it is unknown what the new states where the former Soviet use to be will bring.
Hence Chinese space programme being initially motivated by military objective was not only able to fulfil this whilst establishing its reputation in the international community, but it also managed this with by making its space programme a profitable making venture.
It has been suggested that India’s motivation to develop a space programme has mainly been for development and educational purposes unlike China which had military reasons to it. Furthermore perhaps it hoped to establish itself as a leading Third World Country in space policy, hence prestige was a major factor behind India’s space policy. Others however argue that India’s space policy perhaps like the Chinese had military incentives. However the official reason for the Indian space policy has been that for developmental reasons, although the Indian government have acknowledged that any other developments such as missile technology may occur during the process of achieving its goal. This however maybe interpreted as having a military purpose. Hence Indians’ space policy as pointed by R. Thomas has both a developmental and defence orientations.
Thomas suggests the Indias’ peaceful space programme carries a double effect. Advances in rocket technology and capabilities not only improve satellite telecommunications and meteorological systems, but also provide it with potential ballistic missile delivery system. Perhaps this is why there has been a civilian-military linkage between the Department of Atomic Energy and Department of Space.
Hence in terms of motivations India hopes to develop itself through space policy. It hoped to do this by locating untapped resources assess the weather and warn of disasters and improve education. So why the interest to use it for defence? This is mainly because of its perception of external threats mainly from China and Pakistan. Before the 1962 Sino-Indian war and Chinese atomic test in 1964 Indias’ nuclear and space programme proceeded at a moderate pace. But ensuing defeat in 1962 and with the Chinese development of the atomic bomb India realised how vulnerable it was to China. Hence India began to pace up its rocket missile technology (a similar situation faced by China versus Russian post 1960). Furthermore Pakistan, which has since its independence harboured hostile sentiments towards India had forged friendly relations with China. Hence India a bit like Israel, began to feel it was being surrounded by enemies and hence sought to pace up its rocket and missile technology. India realised it needed an effective delivering system if its missiles where to reach the heartland of China, which is a vast country. Hence its support for a rocketry system. It would appear then that in terms of defence both China and India had similar motives to develop a space policy; with China regarding Russian as its main enemy, and India feeling the same about China.
In terms of achievements India launched its first rocket in 1967. It has at the present moment three launch sites and a substantial space tracking network. The SLV3 launched Indias’ first satellite in 1980. It tested its Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) in 1987 and 1988. In 1986 Satellite Information Technology Experience (SITE) and RS1 1988 aimed to educate people in remote areas especially in agriculture, health and family planning. It also pushed the geographical boundaries by being able to tap into soil and water resources. In 1992 India launched its first communication satellite INSAT land 2.
Although India has always insisted that these advances have been for purely educational purposes as suggested before this maybe argued otherwise. As already mentioned by Thomas its space development may have military implications. Its reconnaissance for earth resources can also be used to monitor Pakistan/Chinese activities along its boarder. India also has the capability to develop through its space programmes inter range ballistic missile (IRBM) and inter continental ballistic range missile (ICBRM); a worrying factor for outside observers especially to those who are likely fall victims to it.
India has managed to fulfil its aims for being a leading space power amongst developing nations, and produced results for its developmental programmes. Although Indias’ achievements now can be credited as a result of its own work, initially like China, it too was dependent on other countries for its space technology. In 1964 India signed an Agreement with France through which it was able to attain its rocket technology. During the Cold War India continued to maintain its "non- alignment" policy by plugging into both US and USSR space technologies. In 1975 the Soviet Union launched Indias’ first satellite which looked at developing Indias’ resources by using monitoring equipment and studying weather patterns. But because this was not always guaranteed it was important to develop an indigenous space programme which it began to do. Indias’ achievements have not been attained without encountering problems. It is true to say that it did not suffer like China in terms of political turmoil. And whilst economically it is still a Third World Country it still invests a significant amount in its space programme. The importance of the space community within India is highlighted by the fact that the Space Department has direct access to the Prime Minister. Its problems differ from China in that unlike China (nor Japan) it has not been able to develop its space programme into a profiteering venture. Although commercialising its space programme has not been one of Indias’ main motives, it would certainly help it to develop further even faster (could educate the whole country if all its population could afford to have televisions) if its space ventures were profitable and commercial. For although the Space Department is well funded the government resources is not unlimited. Furthermore given that the Cold War has ended India cannot expect to get subsidies or greater aid through its "non- alignment" policy. It needs to commercialise its space programmes if it wants to continue to survive. Although in this too it may come across international restraints like China with the US who has opposed Chinese space produces arguing that the costs of production is very cheap in relation to the selling price of the goods. This restricts US to compete.
India however has been able to achieve its aims to use space for developmental purposes quite successfully and at the same time has managed to further its military ambitions and maintain its reputation amongst the Third World Countries and more interestingly an identity amongst the elite group of space powers.
Amongst the three countries, Japans’ motivations to develop a space programme is perhaps the most different in comparison to India and China. Japan unlike India and China has not in the slightest been motivated by defence. Indeed its constitution, which incidentally has been drawn up with Americans’ help, does not allow Japan to develop a space programme for defence if it had wanted to-but hence as it happens it has shown no interest to develop its space programme for that reason. Shigbumi Saito claimed
"Space is recognised as the common frontier of all humanity and it represents infinite possibilities. Science and technology for space activities are also expected to provide a new era of human activities through the exploitation of outer space. At the same time they offer an opportunity for developing advanced technology in other fields."
Perhaps it can be seen from this what motivated Japan to develop a space policy, for technological reasons, and as they achieved this motivated by commercial objectives. Hence peaceful objectives. Ra’anan and Pfalzgraff point out that many of Japans’ industries are involved in the Japan space programme. They include the following companies; Mitsubushi, which helped to develop N-1 and N-2 launch vehicles, and the Nissan motor company Ltd, the only Japanese manufacturer of solid propellant rocket motors, has built the Mu rocket series for scientific launches. One of the latest in series, the Mu 35, launched the Astro- a scientific satellite in February 1981.
Japans’ motives to develop space programme for commercial purposes perhaps explains why Japan is interested in communications and broadcasting (the CS and BSE series) and meteorological satellites (GMS series). Japanese space programme began in 1955 with the development of the pencil rocket. Japan space development at first was quite static but after its establishment of the Space Activities Commission (SAC) 1968 it begun to progress. Furthermore the National Space Development Agency was established in 1969 which controlled all policy decisions for the national space programme (NASDA). One of the reasons as to why Japan was able to come far in its space policy was largely due its efficient management, which incidentally was divided between NASDA and ISAS both of which operated within the policy guidance of SAC. NASDA was responsible for the development and application of satellites and launch vehicles. ISAS took care of launch and development of scientific satellites and the general promotion and support of the space science field including space science projects and relevant research.
It maybe argued that although both NASDA and ISAS had different priorities, one applied technology and the other science, both built launchers. Hence like America it faced the risk of duplicity increasing the possibilities of inefficiency and costs. It however managed to avoid to this and went ahead to be one of the most efficient agency.
Like China and India, Japan too borrowed its technology from a foreign power namely the US. Japan used the Thor Delta launch vehicle technology from the US to put satellites in orbit. It achieved this in 1970 with Oshumi. Oshumi was a solid propellant vehicle developed by the Institute group at the University of Tokyo (later to be reorganised into ISAS in 1981). Furthermore following the N-series (N- 1 1975, N- 1981), these efforts led to the H-1 vehicle, which is the primary vehicle in use today and to develop the indigenous H-2 (cryrogenic). It was H-2 which was responsible for the successful interception of Halley’s Comet. -
Hence in terms of achievements Japan has come quite far. Initially it had faced setbacks and its space policy only began to make a head start with Oshumi which was its fifth attempt to launch satellite. It has developed sound launch vehicles of which H-2 is a prime example of. Furthermore its telecommunication, broadcasting and meteorological satellites have found a footland in the international market. For instance Nippon electronics has already provided ground stations for communications satellites in Malaysia, Libya, Columbia, Malawi, Mexico, the Philippines, Peru, Greenland and Greece.
Although Japans achievements have been quite successful this does not mean it has not faced certain obstacles. Firstly it is limited in the amount of its launches due to its geography. Japan being a small country has to be careful where it makes its launches so as not to endanger its population or the environment. Japan launching capacity, based on the coastal area, is limited to three or four launches per year, owing to an agreement with the fishermans’ union prohibiting such activity in January, February, August and September. Second is the international restrictions. As already mentioned before Japan can not develop space for military purposes even if it had wanted to. Tied within this context is its dependence on the US for its space technologies. For instance the N-series of launch vehicles, which made use of the US Thor Delta engine and guidance technology through licensing agreements the US has been able to impose restrictions on any Japans’ space activities involving those technologies perhaps to prevent Japan becoming a major rival power in space. Finally in terms of finance it has no lobbying power to fight for its budget. Out of the three restrictions the latter two have been more easily to overcome than the first. Japan can do little to amend its geographical restrictions. It can overcome its dependence on the US and hence some of the restrictions imposed through developing an indigenous space programme which it has began to do and H-2 is an example of this. Finally finance has never really been a problem because of its commercial interests it has managed to attract private investments. Furthermore although funding by the government has remained static, the President of NASDA Masato Yamano, points out that: "The total budget of the Japan government has reached a plateau, and the government does not plan to increase the overall budget. Yet even in this situation the NASDA budget is increasing 10% a year, a rate that no other agency can claim. For the overall space budget, which includes NASDA, there is an annual increase of 8% to 10%."
So far China, India, and Japan motivations and achievements have been discussed. Have any similarities or differences emerged? Both China and India have been motivated by military considerations and the prestige which this would bring. Japan has also been driven by prestige considerations. In the essay it has been suggested that the Chinese space community needed to entwine military elements to guarantee its survival during its domestic turmoils. When international climate changed, namely the break up of the USSR, it could no longer strongly argue its survival for military considerations. Its motives changed to become commercial, again to ensure its survival. Hence Chinese motives for space development have changed over time sometimes as a result to its economic and political climate and to a certain extent in response to the changes in the international climate.
Indias’ space development has never needed a military factor to ensure its survival. Its motives to use space programme for developmental purposes was just as important as for military considerations. Both these motives remain important to Indian space development. In this respect Indias’ motives appear to differ from that of China, and the only common factor they share is that they both enjoy the prestige their space programme appears to bring. Although China is still predominantly militarily based it has began to become more commercialised.
In its development of space for commercial interests its motives overlap with that of Japan. Japan however has been using space development for commercial uses long before China, mainly because it would not have been allowed to develop it for military purposes even if it had wanted it to. In this respect it differs from India and China. Recently there eve been increasing concerns, certainly expressed by Mclean and Sheehan that with the demise of the former Soviet Union and the change of balance of power may increase the competition between China and Japan. But they acknowledge at the moment this seems unlikely as most of Chinas’ programme are still predominantly military based ( for instance the Long March 1 booster was a modified version of the CS5-3 ICBM. Furthermore a significant number of Chinese satellites are for military reconnaissance) whilst Japan is more commercial based.
In terms of achievements all three countries attained relative success if taken in account of all the obstacles they had to overcome. China has been plagued persistently by economic and political upheavals. Whilst it managed to sustain a moderate if not a high space profile (an achievement in itself), it went to overcome this by allowing its space programme to have a commercial value it once again viewed itself. Out of the three countries, China it may be argued has had to fight to sustain its space policy trying to make sure it was tuned into the political climate. Its space programme not only had to be indigenous internationally but also nationally as well. It had to be economically viable to sustain itself and not merely depend on the whims of the political climate and its leaders.
Indias’ achievements have also been a quite a success, unlike China its space programme has not experienced the political or economical turmoils. Despite being a very poor country the space programme has always been well funded, and tie direct access to the PM only emphases its national importance. Although it has successfully achieved and has been given the international recognition its due in this field it has not succeeded to develop a commercial. Perhaps its interests would be better served if it did so.
Japan motivated by peaceful purposes has achieved its aims to become a commercial space power. So much so that it has increasingly become to be seen as a competitor amongst NASA and ESA. China too has experienced this. It has been suggested that the Chinese space programme has been in fact been able to benefit from the Shuttle disaster of 1986 and succession of failures of Arianne launches. The US has even attempted to restrict China from competing launches in the international market. Japan has not faced severe problems as that of China nor India. In terms of economics it has no lobbying power to fight for its budgets but as already mentioned it has numerous private investments and the government does fund it frequently. Its major obstacle has been its geographical restrictions and competition from the US. But on the whole Japan owes its efficiency largely due its good organisational capabilities as does India.
Hence although it may appear that all three countries have had different motivations for the development for their space programmes at a closer study one can find overlapping similarities as well as the differences. The same can be said of their achievements. Their success are relative in comparison to each other for the obstacle they have faced in attaining their goals have differed substantially.
The imperative of Tri-partism In telecom management
Asoka De Z. GunasekeraTri-partism is a familiar word in negotiations. Its essence lies in mutual understanding and a spirit of accommodation. In the context of telecommunications tri-partism assumes a much greater significance and much broader implications. Unlike a single commodity like coal or onions, telecommunications is inherently a multi-ended service, in which even in its most basic form, more than two parties are always involved.
Unshackling of the telecommunications sector from its hitherto monopolistic environment and rapid convergence of telecommunications, broadcasting and computer technologies due to rapid digitalisation have brought several new players in the field. Accelerated development of telecommunications and multimedia depends heavily upon coherent contributions from all players involved.
• Telecommunications: a common man’s basic and essential need
Since telecommunications has emerged as a basic need of a common man- it is necessary that the facilities and services offered by the technology be brought to him in the most cost effective manner. Thus, increasing the reach, improving the services and keeping the prices down are major challenges for the telecommunications sector.In transition from a monopolistic to a liberalised environment the Governments faced the most difficult problem of dealing with the huge manpower. There was a demand to drastically reduce the number of staff per 1000 line. Several rounds of negotiations were conducted to reach an agreement and to convince the trade unions about the benefits of liberalisation. As in Sri Lanka, in many developing countries of the world, the unions have demonstrated a very clear understanding of the benefits accruing from adopting a policy of liberalisation and their response has been very positive. It is this spirit of cooperation which sows the seeds of development.
This positive attitude can be fruitfully utilised for having a multiplier effect and for harnessing this environment for creating more business opportunities. We all know from our common experience that every change brings a basket of opportunities. Here by playing a contributory role, all players can utilise these opportunities, open up more avenues for their development and consequently play a key role in accelerating the growth of telecommunications. Such a development will also fuel economic growth and will consequently bring more opportunities for the people.
Telecommunications sector is in a state of transformation. Although telecommunications has always been a state of the art technology, it has undergone huge changes in recent years. Tomorrow’s telecommunications will be vastly different from today’s. It will also be all pervading and more user friendly.
• Telecommunications: Liberalisation, Convergence and User friendliness
Liberalisation has created equal players, convergence is bringing more players, user friendliness of telecommunications and multimedia equipment & services is promoting more awareness among the common people about this most interesting sector. The situation is therefore ideal one for bringing more opportunities to the various players. It is now much easier to convince them about the benefits accruing from the sector and to involve them as equal partners in the process of development.• Customers’ role in the process of development
Today’s customers is a major partner in the process of development- he is better informed than an intelligent layman and is more eager to utilise the facilities which the new technologies can offer to him. This is absolutely essential for a business customer and is very helpful for others. Liberalisation and user friendliness has converted yesterday’s customer from a person who was taken for granted to a person whose views and requirements determine the shape of things to come. Many of these customers are even eager to invest for the development of telecommunications.• The changing role of Governments
Since telecommunications will increasingly become more and more market driven, Governments should quickly realise that their role will continue to change from a sovereign authority to an equal partner. In some cases, regulators feel that the power has shifted to them from Governments and they find pleasure in utilising their authority. In many cases this has given rise to unhealthy disputes between Government and regulator with the result that the very purpose of establishing the regulator has not been achieved. Obviously, if this state of affairs continues then the regulator will loose their significance - technology as well as the market forces will soon make them irrelevant.• The role of User Groups & Consumers’ Councils
Telecom User Groups have been established by the users of telecommunications services for safeguarding their interests. These voluntary bodies have also drawn the attention of manufacturers because they provide the useful feedback for improving their products and for having a competitive edge.There are many versions of Consumers’ Council. Some Councils are recognised and promoted by the Governments, some are quasi judiciary in nature and some aim at crytsallising public opinion against telecom products and services. In the coming days these Councils will serve a very important purpose of educating the common customer of his rights and the obligations of telecommunications service providers.
• Telecommunications and tri-partism:the need for a constructive approach
Telecommunications is a very interesting and challenging sector. Telecommunications has lot of commercial potential and is an essential tool for modernisation. This is the reason that the sector has got wide attention. It has also brought a very large number of pseudo experts in the field. It appears that everybody wishes to try his hand in improving the telecommunications facilities! Even people who have not seen a telephone exchange or are blissfully ignorant about the practical difficulties and implications in providing qualitative telecommunications services find delight in criticising the services which are continuously improving and blaming the people who are doing a yeoman’s service in providing these services in a dedicated manner. An unfair criticism tells upon the morale of a good worker irrespective of the fact whether the service is provided by the Government or by the private sector. It is therefore absolutely essential to have a positive and constructive approach in addressing these issues.Tri-partism has tremendous potentials. It is the only way for maximising the efforts made by various players in the field. A more updated version of this concept is multimedia club.
• Multimedia Club
Convergence of technologies has made it essential for us to think in terms of multimedia development and multimedia applications. Tomorrow’s information infrastructure when realised will be a vehicle for promoting multimedia uses. The various players in telecommunications, broadcasting and computers will have to come together for contributing towards its growth. Informal consultations rather than official dealings will be the main basis of this growth. The immense popularity which internet is enjoying today is mainly due to its easy access and informal nature. Lot of work is now being done on the internet and this trend will continue. The value of informal consultations will be realised by more and more people. The first step therefore is to establish such multimedia clubs at national, provincial and district levels. Even some countries have started the concept of "cybercaffe". In fact, more problems can be solved by sitting in front of a computer terminal with a cup of coffee than discussing the issues in long drawn meetings and boring debates.Let us try for realising the potentials of the tri-partism.lt can serve as a useful think tank as well as a practical platform for trouble shooting. We know that the developing countries of the World have to go a long way in providing the basic telephone facilities. We are in fact, very far from the situation in which every home will have a TV, a telephone and a computer. Obviously there is enough work to keep every player profitably engaged in this important task of multimedia development.
A multimedia club is a meeting place for both Government and the private sector. It is informal and constructive. Its value lies in providing constructive suggestions and practical plans to the Governments. Quite often the Government plans are criticised for being impractical or being too late in their introduction. Input from multimedia clubs will be of practical value in establishing the much needed co-operation among the concerned players.
The task is so enormous that the Governments can not achieve it alone; In fact, in many countries of the world, the leadership for multimedia development has gone to the private sector. The private sector has the required resources, access to the latest technology and is more conveniently placed for bringing advance management practices. The Governments provide them the necessary liberalised environment and a fair playing ground, the workers feel a sense of belonging and the customers feel a sense of involvement in the process of development.
Traditionally, the workers and the employers have sat on the opposite sides of the table and each party has tried to aim at achieving a bargain. This is quite often done at some cost to the parties concerned or to the common user. In a cyber society, the approach will be much different. Collective efforts will bring collective benefits and no party will be a looser. The workers instead of only demanding higher wages will play a constructive role in the development and will get more benefits in terms of carrier development, job security and perhaps business opportunities at the time of their retirement.
Tri-partism therefore is an all-win situation, Let us work for its realisation wholeheartedly.
Reforms in Technical Education and Vocational Training
by A. Earle Z. FernandoVocational Training is now elevated to a ministerial function. Since 1994, the following major institutions responsible for technical education and vocational training have been brought under one Ministry (i.e. since June 1997, under the Ministry of Vocational Training & Rural Industries, and, prior to that, under the Ministry of Labour and Vocational Training).
• Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission (TVEC)
• Department of Technical Education and Training (DTET)
• Vocational Training Authority of Sri Lanka (VTA)
• National Institute of Technical Education (NITE)
The TVEC is the apex body responsible for policy formulation, co-ordination and planning and development of technical education and vocational training. Quality of training is assured through its programmes of standard setting and accreditation of courses.
The Department of Technical Education & Training (DTET), with a 106-year history, delivers formal, institutional-type training at 32 technical colleges and affiliated institutions located in major provincial and district capitals. The DTET, which has traditionally been with the Ministry of Education, is now under a new Ministry that is responsible for both technical education and vocational training. Thus, technical education and vocational training now complement each other. This is a bold step which is in line with modern trends.
Nearly forty years ago, the Labour Department pioneered vocational training for out-of-school, unemployment youths. This is a very sensitive and vulnerable group. Over the years, vocational training expanded and assumed considerable importance because of its usefulness in supplying urgently needed skills for an expanding economy. Thus, it was not possible to develop vocational training while it remained locked in a Government Department that is essentially meant for drafting and enforcement of labour laws. Therefore, in August 1995, the Government established the Vocational Training Authority of Sri Lanka (VTA) as a statutory body. The training programmes of the Labour Department were brought under the VTA and it continues to serve the rural, unemployed youth through employment-oriented, short courses at 176 Rural Vocational Training Centres (RVTCs). The 11 District Centres and 3 National Institutes offer certificate level courses of longer duration and also provide technical and other support to this network of RVTCs.
In addition to the Government organizations and institutions described above, there are several specialized training institutions operated by different Ministries and Agencies. The programmes of these institutes are aimed at satisfying sectorial skills needs related to: telecommunications, transport, construction, textiles and garments, and other specific fields. However, the major training agencies, that supply the more conventional and traditional skill needs of the labour market, namely, the DTET, VTA and the National Apprentice and Industrial Training Authority (NAITA), account for nearly eighty five percent of the training provided by the state sector. As mentioned earlier, these agencies, except NAITA which is still under the Ministry of Science and Technology, have been brought under one Ministry.
The above actions demonstrate an unprecedented commitment of the Government to give priority attention to rationalize the TEVT sector and to epitomize the available resources.
The process of TEVT Reforms formulation
The ongoing reforms in the education sector cover the following three sub-sectors:
• General Education
• University Education
• Technical Education and Vocational Training
The process of formulation of reforms in technical education and vocational training (TEVT) was started in April 1996, when H.E. the President appointed an Inter-Ministerial Committee on Vocational Training. When the report of this Committee was presented to her, it was agreed that there should be an Action Programme to bring about the necessary changes.
In June 1996, the National Education Commission (NEC), together with the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission (TVEC), organised a seminar on Technical and Vocational Education and Training Programmes of the Public Sector. One of the main outcomes of this seminar was a draft document on National Policy on Technical and Vocational Education prepared by the NEC.
In the case of general education and university education, the schools, teacher training colleges, universities and other relevant institutions and organizations are under one Ministry - the Ministry of Education and Higher Education. The TEVT sector is different. Several Government Ministries and organizations as well as the private sector operate a variety of training programmes targeted at different groups such as unemployed youth, rural women, young school leavers, unskilled and semiskilled workers, etc. Different training delivery modes, such as formal, institutional, apprenticeship, inplant and on-the-job, are designed to cater to the varying educational attainments and learning abilities of the target groups. The duration of training and methodologies used will depend on the levels of skill to be attained.
The outcome of these discussions was a Consultative Meeting on Policy Formulation held in June, 1997. The report of the meeting contained policy objectives, strategy initiatives and programme elements to reform technical education and vocational training. A time frame and parties responsible for implementation were also identified. This report was accepted by H.E. the President in October 1997 and a Task Force was appointed to implement the reforms recommended in the report.
The main reasons for TEVT Reforms
The technical education and vocational training reforms are grouped under the following major thrust areas:
• The Role of the Government
• The Involvement of the Private Sector in TEVT reforms.
• The Linkage between General Education, University Education and TEVT
• Training for Self Employment and the Unorganized Sector.
The main reasons for reforms are discussed very briefly under these headings:
The Role of the Government
When the major sectors of the economy were dominated by the state sector, there was almost a captive market for those who came out of the state-run technical education and vocational training institutions. When the economy was liberalized, this situation changed and the private sector became the main employer. Consequently, the trainees graduating from the state training institutions had no guarantee of jobs in the Government sector. They were compelled to compete for jobs in the private sector.
The main thrust of reforms is for the Government to move away from being the main provider of training and become its facilitator, co-ordinator, standard setter and regulator.
The Involvement of the Private Sector in the implementation of TEVT reforms
In a liberalized economy, the labour market changes rapidly. The changes are brought about by the advent of new technology and adaptation of modern practices, particularly in the manufacturing and service sectors. Existing jobs are being lost but new jobs are being created. Information technology accelerates the pace of change. The business community is compelled to embrace new technology and modernize their businesses in order to remain competitive in a globalising economy. It is inevitable, therefore, that the private sector and the business community should be asked to take an active role in reforming the TEVT sector and also to join hands with the Government in planning and implementation of TEVT reforms.
Therefore, another important objective of reforms is to provide the necessary environment and incentives for the private sector to take the lead in providing training to satisfy their own requirements. Such training includes job-entry and on-the-job training as well as retraining and upgrading of workers. Under the reforms, the private sector will be offered a range of incentives such as tax concessions, duty free imports and grants to meet capital expenditure and concessionary credit to meet operational expenses on training. A package of incentives offered to the private sector in the 1999 budget is described later in this note.
Students who are at the secondary school level should make an informed decision to embark on technical education and vocational training. They should do so because they see clearly an alternate route to acquire knowledge and skills that will prepare them for productive employment. Entry criteria for admissions to vocational training centres, technical colleges, apprenticeship schemes are to be reviewed and modified so that there will be progressive paths for talented students and late developers to move upwards in the technical education and vocational training system. At the same time, necessary steps will be taken to develop two-way, lateral linkages between General and University Education and TEVT. Hopefully, this will also minimize the pressure on students to gain entrance to universities.
Training for Self-Employment
Training cannot create employment. However, training is a powerful means of preparing people for employment. But training alone is not sufficient for self-employment. Post-training support measures such as start-up capital, business know-how, access to raw materials and markets are essential for promoting self-employment. The reforms have identified the means to strengthen the links between the training system and the mechanisms available for providing post-training support measures.
The Implementation of Reforms
In November 1997, H.E. the President appointed a Task Force to implement Technical Education and Vocational Training Reforms. The fifteen-member Task Force consists of senior officials of concerned Ministries and Agencies of the Government, representatives of Employer Organizations and Chambers of Commerce and Industry, National Education Commission and other persons with specialized knowledge and experience.
The Committees of the Task Force
There are several Government Ministries and private sector organizations involved in the TEVT reforms process. Hence, it is important to solicit their active participation in order to ensure their commitment to and support for the reforms. Therefore, six technical committees consisting of members of the Task Force and officials and specialists drawn from the Government and the private sector were appointed to facilitate the reforms implementation process. They were to concentrate on the four major thrust areas of reforms (i.e. Role of the Government, Involvement of the Private Sector, Linkage between General and University Education and TEVT, and Training for Self-Employment) as well as two other areas identified by the Task Force (i.e. Quality Improvement, Foreign and Local Resources for TEVT).
Modalities of Implementation
The Committees meet regularly to discuss modalities of implementation of action programme elements identified in the reforms report and to monitor the progress of reforms implementation by concerned agencies. They report to the Task Force at its monthly meetings convened by the Presidential Secretariat and put forward specific proposals for approval. The concerned Government Ministries and Agencies are then directed to implement the proposals. H.E. the President is kept informed of the progress of reforms implementation through regular reports.
The Task Force and the Committees are supported by the Reforms Secretariat established within the Ministry of Vocational Training and Rural Industries.
Some important changes achieved through reforms
As stated earlier, just over a year ago, H.E. the President appointed a Task Force to implement reforms in technical education and vocational training. Some of the more important changes initiated by the Task Force are briefly described below:
Restructuring and Strengthening of the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission (TVEC)
It was mentioned earlier that the main objective of the proposed reforms is that the Government should move away from being the major provider of training and become its facilitator, co-ordinator, standard-setter and regulator. To achieve this objective, it is important to strengthen the capacity of the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission (TVEC), which is the apex body responsible for such work. Therefore, the necessary amendments to the Tertiary and Vocational Education Act, No. 20 of 1990 have been identified. Cabinet approval has been obtained to present these amendments to the Parliament and also to make TVEC a statutory body. The TVEC will be restructured and strengthen so that it will be a more functional and effective organization with necessary powers. The required technical capabilities to formulate strategies and programmes to bring about the above changes are also being developed.
Standard Setting and Certification
At present, different training institutions issue their own certificates. This creates some confusion amongst employers because it is difficult for them to understand the competency levels of the holders of these certificates. To overcome this problem, the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission (TVEC) has finalized plans to issue national certificates according to accepted standards. For a start, the main training institutions of the Government such as the Vocational Training Authority (VTA), National Apprentice and Industrial Training Authority (NAITA), and the Department of Technical Education and Training (DTET) will use a common national certificate approved by the TVEC. This scheme will be extended to other training institutions in the state and private sector. It is hoped that such an arrangement will promote competition among training institutions as they will try to improve their training programmes to reach the prescribed national standards. This will improve quality of training and job prospects of those who complete training.
Incentives to the Private Sector
As a result of the efforts of the Presidential Task Force, the 1999 Budget provides significant incentives to the private sector to invest in training and to expand and intensify their ongoing training programmes.
The following extract from the 1999 Budget speech of the Hon. Deputy Minister of Finance illustrates the commitment of the Government to motivate the private sector:
Assistance for the Private Sector to engage in Training in Priority Sectors & Productivity Improvement in Local Industry.
In the context of on going reforms in technical education and vocational training, it is necessary to encourage the private sector also to invest in training. The BOI already provides preferential tax rate of 15 per cent and duty free facilities to establish training facilities. In order to further stimulate the private sector investor engagement in the provision of training facilities in priority sectors such as garments, gem and jewellery, electronics, computer software, I now propose to amend BOI incentives to grant a 5-year tax holiday provided each training institute undertake training for a minimum of 300 persons. I also propose to provide financial assistance to expand and improve existing training programmes or to establish new training facilities. Therefore, I propose to allocate Rs. 50 million to the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission, which will disburse funds based on, established criteria that are aimed at promoting transfer of technology, modernization and employment promotion.
I also propose to set up a Skills Development Fund in order to support the employers to conduct job entry training, upgrading and retraining of their employees as well as to improve enterprise based training, with the objective of raising productivity in Sri Lankan industries. I propose to allocate an initial grant of Rs. 100 million for this purpose.
Pending the allocation of Rs. 100 million in the 1999 financial year, a grant has been obtained from the UNDP/ILO Vocational Training Project to start a Skills Development Fund (SDF) on a pilot basis. During the pilot phase, the SDF will demonstrate its usefulness to the employers and to solicit their support in financing and operating it under the overall supervision of the Ministry of Vocational Training and Rural Industries. Operational procedures and a legislative framework or other suitable mechanism for the establishment of the SDF will also be developed. This work has commenced from 1st October 1998 with the appointment of a consultant.
In response to recent newspaper advertisements and letters sent through Employers’ Organizations and Chambers of Commerce and Industry by the SDF, over fifty private sector firms have requested assistance for training, retraining and upgrading of their workers. A number of tailor-made programmes will be started shortly at selected Government training institutions. The firms will pay for these services.
Linkage between General Education, University Education and Technical Education and Vocational Training
As a first step in providing opportunities for upward mobility for those in the TEVT sector, agreement has been reached to establish linkages between the major state institutions awarding National Certificates and Diplomas in TEVT.
Two of the three institutions awarding Diplomas, namely, the Technician Training Institute of the National Apprentice and Industrial Training Authority (NAITA) and Sri Lanka Institute of Advanced Technical Education (SLIATE) have agreed to consider the certificates issued by the Technical Colleges and Vocational Training Centres operated by the Department of Technical Education and Training (DTET), Vocational Training Authority (VTA) and NAITA as an alternate entry qualifications for their diploma courses. It is hoped that the University of Moratuwa, which awards National Diploma in Technology, will follow suit.
The next step is for the Degree awarding institutions to recognize Diploma courses offered by the respective TEVT institutions as an alternate entry qualification relevant for the degree courses.
The Task Force has emphasized that the purpose of this exercise is to promote upward mobility and career prospects to those starting at the bottom of the TEVT system. This scheme will provide opportunities to bright, promising students who have demonstrated ability and aptitude to pursue higher technical and vocational studies. The criteria for selection, numbers to be taken are left to the concerned agencies and institutions.
Training for Self-Employment
Keeping inline with the recommendations of the Task Force, the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission (TVEC) of the Ministry of Vocational Training and Rural Industries has initiated a dialogue with the concerned Ministers and Heads of Agencies to develop a common programme of action taking into consideration the experience and strengths of the Vocational Training Authority (VTA), National Apprentice Industrial Training Authority (NAITA), and National Youth Service Council (NYSC). The strengths of these agencies are as follows:
The VTA has a network of Rural Training Centres supported District and National Training Centres. These centres conduct short, employment oriented courses satisfying the needs of the rural sector. The centres are operated in close collaboration with rural committees and organizations.
By nature, apprenticeship consists of basic training combined with on-the-job training in industry. During the past twenty-five years, NAITA has successfully developed Skills Training Standards and Testing and Certification procedures. The main objective of the NYSC is the total development of youth. ( i.e. development related to physical, psychological, social, political and cultural aspects). In addition to regular programmes on career guidance and counselling and job placements, NYSC organizes "job fairs" which have become popular.
Although these agencies are under different Ministries, they are now working very closely to identify and develop mutually supportive strategies and programmes that will use their existing resources and institutional strengths in promoting self-employment through a combination of joint inputs consisting of employment-oriented training, career guidance and counselling, and inplant training.
The proposed ADB Skills Development Project
A grant US$ 600,000 has been obtained from the Asian Development Bank for Project Preparation Technical Assistance (PPTA) in order to prepare a Skills Development Project. When the ADB fact-finding mission visited Sri Lanka in April, 1998, the Task Force gave them guidelines and a framework for the proposed project. Based on this, and on the outcome of consultations with concerned Government and private sector organizations, a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) was signed between the Government and ADB in May 1998 to proceed with the PPTA.
According to the MOU, the objectives of the proposed PPTA are to undertake feasibility studies to prepare a Skills Development Project to facilitate the planning and implementation of vocational training programmes for rural youth, including females, residing in the rural areas, and to enhance their entrepreneurial skills. They will be provided with start-up capital, technical assistance and advice to enable them to engage in self-employment or set up micro-enterprises.
The proposed project will support the implementation of TEVT reforms by developing action plans that will assist in the reorientation of the skills development system into one that can provide for acquisition of marketable skills. The project will assist in developing suitable institutional structures that are capable of delivering quality-oriented, demand- driven technical education and vocational training.
International Consultants, together with National Consultants, and Counterparts drawn from relevant Government Ministries and Agencies, have started work on the PPTA which will take four months to complete. The proposed budget for the main project, which is likely to commence by the end of 1999, will be about US$ 20 million.
(The writer is the Co-ordinator of the Presidential Task Force on TEVT Reforms. He is also the Advisor on Technical Education & Vocational Training, Ministry of Vocational Training & Rural Industries. Prior to joining the Ministry, he was a Senior Specialist in Vocational Training of the International Labour Organization (ILO) for eighteen years).
