      |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Goods and Services Tax (GST)
How IMF sees
Anton Op de Beke,
IMF Resident Representative in Sri LankaThe IMF has been so closely associated with the GST. Recommended as early as 1990 in the Tax Commission Report, the GST has been long in the making. All along, the IMF has been involved. In 1992 we fielded the first specialist technical assistance mission.
It drafted a report that outlined and made recommendations on all the conceptual issues. The report has proven very helpful to the government in designing the GST. Subsequently we have helped when it came to translating: these designs into concrete and detailed legislation. For this purpose technical assistance missions came to Sri Lanka in 1996 and 1997. Currently, in the person of Peter Bruges whom you will hear shortly, backed up by the staff at IMF headquarters, we are providing hands-on assistance with the implementation. The IMF has been able to provide this technical assistance because it could draw on a wealth of international expertise and experience.
With the decision to implement the GST as of April, a long preparation process has finally come to fruition. We recommend the government. In the end, despite the long deliberation, it was still a bold step that required political courage. Unlike new spending programs, for which there is always a specific constituency and often a general sympathy among the electorate, new taxes, even if they replace existing ones, are generally resisted, and particularly forcefully by special interests. The decision to introduce the GST proves the government's commitment to strengthening the structure of the country's fiscal accounts. Naturally, we hope that this initiative on the revenue side will be followed by equally bold initiatives on the expenditure side.
Your main interest, no doubt, is in trying to understand the workings of the GST and being able to put questions to the experts on the panel. You will be less interested in my economists' perspective on the GST, and I will therefore be brief. Nonetheless, a refresher of why the GST is important to Sri Lanka may help you deal with some of the frustrations you will surely encounter once it is implemented.
As you know, the GST is a so called value added tax or VAT (henceforth, I will speak about GST and VAT interchangeably). There is no precedent in tax history for the success the VAT has had. Theoretically conceived in the US early in this century, but practically pioneered in France in the I950s, it has taken the world by storm. By now it has been introduced in almost all industrial countries - the US and Australia being the most significant exemptions - and to many if not mostly developing countries. All in all some 80 countries now have Vats. The reason for this phenomenal success is the VAT's superiority over alternative taxes in raising revenue, neutrality and efficiency. Allow me a few words on each.
The VAT has proven to be a good revenue raiser, contributing in most countries between 12 and 30 per cent of revenue, which represents about 5-1O per cent of GDP. This reliable revenue creates a valuable alternative tax source, especially in countries that have a limited income tax base or that must rely on volatile revenues from primary commodities.
The main advantage of a VAT compared to other forms of taxation is that taxing consumption can be less distortionary than taxing labour and income. If the tax is designed with few exemptions and little zero rating that further helps reduce distortions. With the VAT on investment fully credited, they are an improvement over taxes that do tax capital goods. Similarly the fact that the VAT on an export can be fully identified and rebated should ensure that exports compete on an equal footing.
The efficiency gains of the VAT stem mainly from the fact that it usually replaces inefficient, distortionary and badly administered taxes. Most relevant for Sri Lanka is that the GST eliminates the cascading effect of the turnover tax, permits lower and fewer rates, and is administratively more suitable because of its self-enforcing and cross-checking features. The administrative burden associated with the VAT can be relieved by more widespread use of computers. The government's decision to stick with the single rate of its original design, despite many requests for multiple rates, will also critically facilitate the administration of the GST.
In the last Budget Speech Minister G L Peiris referred to concerns about the cost of Iiving in connection with the introduction of the VAT. I understand that such concerns have also played a big role in setting the GST rate at a relatively low level. Concerns about the cost of living or rather the inflationary impact are understandable. Let's distinguish between two possibilities: one, an increase in the rate of inflation, that is, a sustained increase in the rate of change in the price level; and two, a one-time increase in the price level. The possibility of an in crease in the rate of inflation we can discard on conceptual grounds. Such an increase can only result from an expansionary monetary policy. A one time effect on the price level is, however, possible, although it unlikely to be large.
The conventional conclusion is that a VAT introduced in a revenue neutral manner which is what the GST is intended to be would have no impact on the aggregate price level, since the aggregate demand in this case is unchanged. Similarly reasoned, a revenue-enhancing VAT would lead to a decline in the price level because it is fiscally contractionary; and a revenue losing VAT, because it is expansionary, would cause the price level to rise. To this there are a couple of qualifications.
First, this reasoning excludes any supply response. If, however, the GST entails a lower degree of distortion in production, which is the main reason it is being introduced, than it would lead to an expansion of supply and therewith exert a downward pressure on the price level.
Second, there is the problem of the price index. The GST will bring about many relative price changes that will induce changes in expenditure patterns as a result of which the aggregate price level should remain the same. However, the policy focus is always on inflation as measured with a specific price index, usually the Consumer Price Index, as is the case in Sri Lanka, and this index has historically fixed weights. Hence, the adjustment in expenditure patterns will not be captured and the CCPI will be affected. It is hard to say beforehand whether the impact on the price level would be plus or minus.
Thirdly, any economy counts monopolistic and monopsonitic elements. The introduction of a new tax with all the attendant confusion could able exploited by them as an opportunity to raise prices. It is therefore, important that the public be optimally informed about the GST, especially about the fact that it replaces other taxes and is designed to be revenue neutral. This will maximize competitive pressure and limit the scope for monopolistic price rises.
The big question that remains is whether the GST rate of 12.5 per cent will prove to be appropriate. A lot of effort has gone into trying to compute the rate at which the GST would be revenue neutral, that is, bring in as much money Ñ no more and no less Ñ as the current BTT. Inevitably those calculations are surrounded by a great degree of uncertainty. Moreover, the Government is rightly still very concerned about the size of the fiscal deficit, which it wants to bring down from 7.6 per cent of GDP last year to 4 per cent in 2000. It should also be noted that due to the erosion of the various tax bases, the revenue performance of the economy has deteriorated in recent years. Measured as share of GDP, government revenues have decreased from 20.4 per cent in 1995, to 19 per cent in 1996 and 1997, and now to a projected 18.6 per cent in 1998. In other words, in the aggregate, taxation in Sri Lanka has been declining. In the light, therefore, of the uncertainty surrounding the revenue neutral rate, the still large fiscal deficit, and the recent revenue performance, the Government, I am sure, will be watching very closely whether the GST is producing the desired revenue at the current rate.
Courtesty: Economic Review
Rasanayagam and 'The Autochthon debate'
by Citizen PereraCitizen A.D. has shown in his article in the Island on 23/12/98, (page 5,) what the motive behind Mudaliyar C. Rasanayagam's book 'Ancient Jaffna' published in 1926 actually was. But, the need to concoct evidence of Tamil claims to their homeland theory may be traced far back to the Dutch and Portuguese periods of history, when books like the Yalpana Vaipava Malai and the Kalai Malai were written with the same purpose in mind. Despite the fanciful myths and theories put forward in such works in a vain effort to trace the antiquity of Tamil occupation of Jaffna to a remote period in history, they have also come out with the truth where the evidence was too strong to circumvent it.
The most important of these is the prevalent folk tradition in Jaffna Peninsula that it was the site of the first Sinhala Kingdom founded by their first ruler Prince Vijaya, an Aryan exile from his own country. Rejecting the suggestion of 'De Couto that Vijaya landed at a place called Periyature (i.e. Mahatota or Mahatittha) between Mulaitive and Trincomalee, or that by Parker at the mouth of the Kirindi Oya' and even 'the popular impression that it was near Puttalam,' Rasanayagam says:
'.....according to the local tradition which still exists and which has been embodied in the Yalpana Vaipava Malai, Vijaya landed in the northern coast of Jaffna and took up his residence at Kadiramalai' (i.e. modern Keerimale). 'If indeed, copper coloured earth had anything in common with the name Tambapanni, as stated in the Mahavansa, there is no place in Ceylon where copper coloured earth can be found close to the shore as the north coast of Jaffna.' (Ancient Jaffna, page 52)
It must also be remembered that a series of inquiries into the etymology of place names of Jaffna peninsula in 'The Ceylon Antiquary (1895-1918) had conclusively shown that they were indeed to be traced to Sinhala place names that were Tamilised versions of the original Sinhala names. This is also true of Tamil names for places in the whole of the island, for if a map showing the current Tamil names is printed, places marked as Kali, Kalliturai or Kla, would hardly be recognised as Sinhala Galla, Kulutara and Galaha. Some of the people who contributed to this inquiry, JP. Lewis, B. Horsburgh, (both well known members of the CCS), Rev. Fr. S. Gnana Prakasar OMI and B. Coomaraswamy (CCS, Jaffna Police). None of these were Sinhala people and therefore they had no ulterior motive in coming to the conclusion the place names in areas now occupied mostly by Tamil people, were originally Sinhala. Horsburgh's contribution to this discussion is worth quoting here:
'It is clear from evidence of the place names already considered, that the Sinhalese were in occupation of the (Jaffna) Peninsula before the first Tamil invasions and that the latter in the course of driving out the Sinhalese, took over a number of their place names and gave them a Tamil form, adapting, if possible, Tamil words as near the Sinhalese forms as they could get.... Valikamam for Weligama, Kodikamam for Godigamuwa, etc.,' (B. Horsburgh, Ceylon Antiquary Vol. II part I p. 57, 1916.)
'That the Sinhalese occupied the northern portion of the mainland, which is now Tamil country there is ample evidence carved in stone all over the Mannar and Mullaitivu Districts, but the fact that they were also settled in the Jaffna Peninsula before the Tamils came, depends for its proof mainly on the evidence provided by the place names they have left behind them, corroborated by the very few stone relics that have been found.' (B. Horsburgh, Ceylon Antiquary Vol. II part I p. 54.)
To the credit of Rasanayagam, it must be said that he has endorsed this view in 'Ancient Jaffna,' despite the spurious myths and the tedious rigmaroles he has amassed elsewhere in his book. In fact he has found in addition to this, sociological evidence to support it, as substantial proof of the final conclusion arrived at in the discussion on the place names of Jaffna:
'That Jaffna was occupied by the Sinhalese earlier than by the Tamils is seen not only in the place names of Jaffna but also in some of the habits and customs of the people. The system of branding cattle with the communal brand by which not only the caste but also the position and family of the owner could be traced, was peculiarly Sinhalese.' (Ancient Jaffna p. 384)
Until the 16th century, the majority of the people in Jaffna were Sinhala Buddhists. How this situation was changed by a rabid Tamil communalist way back, in 1544, is quoted by Rasanayagam from the Yalpana Vaipava Malai:
'After the massacre of the Christians, Sankili's insane fury longed for more victims and he fell upon the Buddhists of Jaffna who were all Sinhalese. He expelled them beyond the limits of the country and destroyed their numerous places of worship. Most of them betook themselves to the Vannis and the Kandyan territories (YVM, p. 33)'
On his own, Rasanayagam has added the following comments:
'.... and those who were unable to do so became the slaves of the Tamil chieftains and are now known as 'Kovia', a caste peculiar to Jaffna alone. The term no doubt is corruption of the Sinhalese word 'Goviya' or 'Goiya' and that their original status was equal to that of the Vellalas can be inferred from certain customs which are still in vogue in Jaffna.' (Ancient Jaffna, p. 383)
Rev. Fr. S. G. Perera also confirms this fact in the following manner:
'The kingdom of Jaffna consisted of the northern Peninsula called Yalpanam in Tamil and Yapane in Sinhalese, along with the neighbouring islets, portion of the adjacent lands and the sea coast up to the island of Mannar. In the sixteenth century that kingdom was inhabited by Hindu Tamils who had come to this island as conquerors or settlers. Before them, it was peopled by Buddhist Sinhalese, as shown by the recently discovered remains of viharas and dagabas and by the large number of Tamulicised Sinhalese place-names.' (History of Ceylon for Schools 1505-1896, page 2)
C. W. Nicholas, himself not a Buddhist or a Sinhalese, has added his own comment to this debate:
'Throughout the north-central region the great majority of the ancient place-names has been lost and the conclusion has been drawn that the present population is not descended from the original Sinhalese inhabitants. In the Tamil areas of the north and the east, many place-names have assumed Tamil forms in which the original Sinhalese element is recognisable.' (History of Ceylon, University of Ceylon, Vol. I page 12)
One wonders whether this is the type of home truth that the pro-Tamil, Sinhala government of today wants to suppress by the recent proposal to rewrite the History of Sri Lanka. It should be realised that a permanent solution to the so-called ethnic problem posited by President Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga, could be arrived at only by facing the truth fair and square and not by trying to hide behind it as this new proposal seemingly intends to do.
Religion
Proselytization of Buddhists
by U. W. SenanayakeI refer to the letter appeared in the Island of 04.12.98 under the caption ‘Master plan to liquidate Buddhism’ complimenting a writer on the same subject in The Island of 16.11.98. Both writers appear to focus their attention to Buddhism in the O’level syllabus for not presenting the Dhamma in fullness resulting in producing children with no knowledge of Buddha Dhamma, thereby paving the way for proselytization.
This is attributed to be the creation of a sinister move by a master Think Tank of which no specific reference has been made other than to throw the reader into the doldrums of his or her own visualisation. Can a fully Dhamma oriented O’level question paper with a considerably upgraded Dhamma component be the solution to save Buddhism in this country?
Or on the other hand, should the O’level students be omniscient on leaving school or passing onto the Advance level? Are the wizards of intellect in glorified higher echelons of the educational arena blind to these lapses or are they anti-Buddhist? If this discovery is acceptable, it will mean that our educationalists had been taking the Buddhists for a ride for over fifty years.
Logically, it means that all those children, who had offered Buddhism as a subject in the O’level for over half a century had been vulnerable to conversion as they did not receive a comprehensive knowledge of Dhamma. These are obviously matters for our educationalists, but as citizens, we appreciate if our schools can turn out good Buddhists.
When speaking on extinction of Buddhism, one has to be precisely clear whether ineffective ‘O’ level education is the only factor that is responsible. I guess there are enough and more ancillary factors contributing to proselytization. Some of them can be of national or international level, while there are those within the capability of the Sri Lankan Buddhists themselves.
The international scenario is much complex and complicated. There is a formidable resistance from heretical-minded theologists on the one hand, and the cult-oriented reformists on the other. Even the doctrine of the Buddha has been transformed into many Sects to suit the ideologies of some societies and communities. In this context, we find two factions of Buddhism, namely, the Hinayana or Theravada and Mahayana, that embrace the entire world Buddhist community. We have Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand in the Theravada camp and practically the rest of the international Buddhist community in the Mahayana camp with the exception of countries like Vietnam, which has devotees of both sects. Again, Mahayana concepts differ from one community to another as in the case of Zen Buddhism of Japan, Malaysia and Korea.
There is also the Vajirayana sect. There are those, who identify themselves with one sect or another. No-one makes a big fuss over those who change their sectarial affiliations within the same religion. Presumably, such cases are treated as crossing over to persons from one political party to another. The focus is actually on cases of those who, change their religious concepts by embracing another faith. This is a factor that has to be considered broadly without confining it to a narrow perspective such as education or politics, though they too have some indirect effect.
There are some who, accept another faith through conviction, while there are others who are motivated to do so. One’s own conviction of course is not questionable or worthy of comment as anyone has the freedom of worship. Motivation is a matter of similar nature as propogation and the freedom of speech too are human rights.
In this case, I feel that the only course of action left to a concerned person, group or organization is to explore the causes that lead to proselytization and to find remedial measures if possible.
Ceylon history records many instances of mass conversions subsequent to the invasion of Dutch and Portuguese. Even the kings like Don Juwan Dharmapala gave up Buddhist faith. These are the results of vandalism caused by the thrust to establish authoritative rule on the subjects. In the colonial days we see how people were converted for want of various necessities in life, such as education, employment. Those in the Maritime Provinces were the first to be subjected to these changes.
These actions could not be counteracted as the people had to live under the yoke of rigid foreign rulers who, wanted to introduce their culture and religious susceptibilities in colonies. The leadership given by Ven Anagarika Dharmapala as well as the Buddhist monks in the pre-Independent era are really commendable in this respect.
The biggest success is the creation of the Buddhist Theosophical Society that established schools giving the pride of place to Buddhism. As years went by, there were many changes in the education sphere as well as in the Buddhist community that have come to stay in a incomprehensible multicomplexed scenario as at present. Buddhism that has survived the rigours of time in this fashion, cannot be liquidated as one may imagine, but the erosion of the Buddhist community or the wilful misinterpretation of the doctrine has to be considered seriously as the only correct approach to the problem.
Major cause for conversion is the abject poverty of the rural population in Sri Lanka, where, about 18 per cent or more of the population is reported to be living below the poverty line. Nearly 30 per cent drop out of schools in the rural areas, while about 50 per cent of those in the age group of 15 to 18 years are out of school.
This indeed is a grave problem, for it is the principle in Buddhist doctrine, not to preach to a hungry man, for that person cannot comprehend the Dhamma. Dhamma breeds in a healthy mind. Hence, there should be a healthy body to foster a healthy mind. If we go still deep into this problem we can see that even the school children are subjected to malnutrition, leave apart the poor locals. Eminent Buddhist monks are being accused of giving preference to Bodhi Poojas, discriminating remarks on Gods of other religions and for identifying some Gods as pertaining to Buddhism.
Even the Sil campaigns are conducted more in a propagative fashion than in a spiritual aspect. Whenever the Government has a hand in any Buddhist activity in official capacity, we always see a ritualistic or a cultural concept.
Take for example, the most popular places of veneration. The noise pollution and security arrangements with other disturbances, distract the devotees to such an extent that they have virtually become places of sightseeing. Most of these places are highly commercialist thereby defeating the very purpose for which they exist. I have had enough experience of the foreign visitors to the places like Dalada Maligawa confiding in me that the "Buddhism is too noisy and disturbing." This is to say that they do not get impressed even on the cultural aspect.
I still remember how calm and serene the Maligawa and its holy dust touched by millions of devotees, our great grand parents, Kings and Queens, graciously looked just over fifty years ago, where proud Kachcheri employees walked through the Maligawa premises to do a yeoman service by the masses. The courts complex, Kachcheri, Museum and the Devalas stood alongside the much venerated Dalada Maligawa in a calm and unpolluted atmosphere except for the noise of the drums in keeping with the age old traditions. The Buddha’s teachings that infiltrated into my young mind through the rhythm of the beating of drums still kindle the faith of Buddha Dhamma in me. Will the modernization that the Maligawa and the premises have undergone, create such as impact on the present day children? Do they not contribute to liquidate Buddhism? I quite agree with Mr. Devendra’s letter appeared in the Island of 04.12.98 stating that the Ministry of Buddhasasana in National and Provincial levels should be scrapped. It will save money for the Government and also will help to save Buddhism. Instead, a Ministry of Cultural Affairs would be much useful, appropriate and competent to look after the cultural aspects of all religions.
Sri Lankans of the pre colonial era were made to believe that the king who, possessed the Tooth Relic of the Buddha could rule the country. The kings who, erected colossal buildings and monasteries as well as those who, observed rites and rituals were treated as pious rulers. The masses too were conditioned by such cultural performances leaving the spiritual aspect of Buddhism to the clergy. Religious practices like visiting the Temples very often, observing of sil or refraining from engaging in normal duties on Poya days, looking up to the clergy for advice and so on became so convincing and conducive to the peaceful existence of Sri Lankans.
Introduction of worship of Gods came with the twelve thousand Colian prisoners brought to Sri Lanka by king Gaja Bahu from Tanjore in India. The king of Cola presented Gaja Bahu with jewelled anklets of the Hindu goddess Pattini and the insignia of four Hindu deities, Visnu, Kartikeya, Natha and Pattini. (The Pali literature of Ceylon by G. P. Malalasekera). Those Colians introduced the Devalas and also their words to the Sinhala vocabulary. Nevertheless, the discourses of the Buddha reveal that Buddha had not denied the existence of Gods. These beliefs and faiths along with the Buddhist doctrine has closely interwoven into a indecipherable and inconceivable fabric of the Sri Lankan society that has maintained identity since the introduction of Buddhism by Ven: Mahinda Thero. This Buddhist culture inculcated in the minds of the Sri Lankans with a mixture of fear of God and the concept of re-birth has helped to maintain their humananistic and virtuous identity. Any drastic action to drag them from this cherished sphere of their unique way of practising the religion would result in adverse consequences.
All these will point to the fact that anyone contemplating to save Buddhism should endeavour to identify the numerous causes leading to proselytization if anything worthwhile is to be done. The best way to save Buddhism in my personal view is to:
1. dissociate Buddhism from the clutches of Politics and leave all religions to the clergy and the laity.
2. identify and help knowledgeable educated monks to organise classes in their Temples to teach Buddhist doctrine for children as well as the adults.
3. arrange for all Buddhist Societies to be under the patronage of the Temples in the respective areas.
4. effect a joint programme to establish close relationship with the residents so as to understand the problems of the people with a view to help and to guide them.
Muslims and Jerusalem
by Siddiq GhouseThe last Friday of the Holy month of Ramazan is observed as Al Quds day, it’s a day dedicated by the late Ayatollah Khomeini to remind the over one billion Muslims the world over that the Muslims Holy city of Jerusalem, Islam’s third holiest city after Makkah and Madinah is no longer under the control of the Muslims, and they are duty bound to liberate it. The Holy Quran in Chapter 17:1 refers to the Holy Mosque in Jerusalem, the Baithul Muqaddis in the following manner "Glory to Allah who did take His servant (Prophet Muhammad) for a journey by night from the Sacred Mosque (Makkah) to the Farthest Mosque (Jerusalem) whose precincts we did bless in order that we might show him some of our signs..........
Jerusalem, the sacred house of Allah was built by the Canaanites around 3200 BC and was called ‘Urusalim" by them. The descendants of the Canaanites the Arab "Yabuseen" tribes inhabited "Urusalim" and they built a fort around it on the hill on which the city of Jerusalem stands. The Yabuseen were a powerful tribe and they were skilled in warfare, and no one dare to challenge their existence in their homeland, till around 1000 BC when David captured the city, followed by his son Solomon who jointly ruled for around 70 years.
David and his tribe settled among the Arab tribe of Yabuseen and so history shows that the Arabs have been in Palestine including Jerusalem, throughout history. They have included the Canaanites and their descendants in such Arab tribes as Lakhm, Juzan, Am’lah, Kindah, Qais,and Kinana Kudah together with the descendants in such Arab tribes Al-Qain,Beni-Qutab,Jerm, and Bani-Udhrah.
There is a religious, ethical, political and historic claim to Jerusalem by the Muslims/Arabs the world over. The city of Jerusalem is associated with the Prophets of God namely Moses, David, Solomon, Jesus and Muhammad (May peace be upon all of them) and it is essential in Islamic beliefs to accept all these Prophets, the Muslim right to Jerusalem thereby reigns supreme. Islam teaches that the Hebrew Prophets were Prophets of God, everything associated with these Prophets and with their missions, Islam regarded as holy, worthy not only of preservation but of veneration. Islam directed its adherents to pay equal homage to these Prophets and their memories "not to distinguish between them". The Muslims love for Jerusalem is within the very theological and religious tradition of Islam. It was due to this theological understanding that the city of Jerusalem gained an important place in the life of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). In the year 620 C.E. the event of Isra and Mihraj occurred. One night in a miraculous way, the Prophet was taken on a journey from Makkah to Jerusalem, and from there to the celestial abodes, the high heavens. The night journey from Makkah to Jerusalem is called the ‘Isra’ and the ascencion from Jerusalem to the heavens is called the ‘Mihraj’. Both these events took place in one and the same night. The Angel Gabriel took the Prophet from Makkah to Jerusalem, to the holy Mosque the Al Aqsa in Jerusalem,the third holiest place in Islam. The link and connection between Makkah and Jerusalem was direct and uninterrupted. The same Prophetic Message that came to Jerusalem centuries ago, came also to the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) in Makkah. The message of Monotheism. The Prophet was fully conscious of this reality. The Holy Prophet in one of his sayings mentioned "Journey should not be undertaken (with the intention of worship) except to three mosques; The Sacred Mosque in Makkah, the Prophet’s Mosque in Madinah, and the Farthest Mosque (the Al Aqsa Mosque) in Jerusalem".
Jerusalem has been occupied more times than any other city in the world. The Macedonians, Babylonians and Romans during their occupation destroyed the Jewish temples in the Holy city. Hadrian ordered that no Jew should be permitted to step into Jerusalem, the Crusaders history records meted out harsh treatment to the Jews. Jerusalem came under Islamic rule during the reign of Caliph Umar in 638 C.E..The Patriarch of the city of Jerusalem, Sophronius himself offered the keys of the city of Jerusalem to Caliph Umar after its conquest. Upon entering the blessed city, the benevolent Caliph asked about the site of the Blessed Rock where the Prophet went on Mihraj, that was then a desolate site, according to historian was a dung hill. Umar when locating the site fell upon his knees and started cleaning the place with his own hands. The Masjid al Aqsa was established in that place. Later during the Umayyad period,the beautiful mosque and next to it the Dome of the Rock were built in 691. Jerusalem remained under Muslim rule until the Crusaders seized it. Those were bloody wars, and the Crusaders held the city from 1099 till the famous Muslim General Saladin the Great recaptured it from the Crusaders.
During Islamic rule history records neither Jewish nor Christian sites have been violated in Jerusalem rule lasting around 1500 years. History is aware of the Roman persecution of Jews and Christains in antiquity. Muslims recognised the rights of the Christians and Jews in Jerusalem and they were given permission to visit the city and settle there, although under the Crusaders there was a ban on Jewish settlement. If Muslim rule was not tolerant under over a thousand year rule, the wailing wall of the Jews and Christian Holy sites would have been obliterated.
Jerusalem is now under Israeli occupation since 1967 and Benjamin Netanyhu’s government is further expanding Jewish settlements in the Holy City. The original inhabitants of Jerusalem including both Christian and Muslim Arabs are being subjected to the harshest of treatment, including oppression, humiliation and expulsion.
• The Muslims, therefore taking all the above facts are pre-eminently qualified to be the trustees and the guardians of the Holy city of Jerusalem. Only under Islamic rule can the world communities of Judaism, Christianity and Islam feel re-assured that the sanctity of all religious sites in Jerusalem be honoured and preserved. History has proved this fact.
It is the religously bound duty of every single Muslim in the world to wage a struggle in every way possible for the liberation of Jerusalem.
The good you do will return to you
by Brother Baptist Croos F.S.C." Do good and throw it into the river," so goes an Urdu proverb. In other words, we are urged by our religious tenets to do all the good that we can, but not to mention it to anyone. This injunction is very intense. Christ said, "Let not your left hand know what your right hand does." (Mt. 6:3) You should do good in secret. If you do good publicly, there is no need to boast about it or get your good deed-shown on TV or published in the dailies or proclaimed from the roof-top. The fact is, the good you do, will return to you in a way perhaps you never would have imagined or dreamt of. Christ further said, ‘And whoever gives to one of these little ones even a cup of cold water because his is a disciple, truly, I say to you, he shall not lose his reward ." (Mt.10:42)
Be magnanimous in offering, selfless in serving and joyful in giving. St. Paul says, " God loves a cheerful giver," ( 2 Cor. 9:7 ). The famous Lebanese Poet Khalil Gibran in his thought - provoking book, " The Prophet," says,
"These are those who give with JOY
and joy is their reward.
There are those who give with PAIN
and pain is their baptism.
But there are those who give
not knowing joy, not knowing pain,
not with mindful of any virtue.
They give as in yonder valley,
The myrtle breathes its fragrance
freely into space.
Through the hands of such as these
God speaks, end from behind their eyes,
God smiles upon this earth,"
Remember, " It is more blessed to give, than to receive." (Acts 20;35).
Once a very rich family went on a day’s picnic. The members thoroughly enjoyed themselves until a tragedy struck one of the members. The young boy who jumped into the swimming pool had got into difficulties and was struggling for breath. The other family members were helpless. Panic stricken they shouted and yelled. Hearing their cries, the son of a poor farmer jumped at once into the swimming pool and rescued the boy. The rich man was overwhelmed with emotion that his son had been saved. He thanked the poor farmer’s son profusely and went in search of his father.
When he found him, he thanked him sincerely and praised the courage and the life saving act of his son. " I am very grateful to your son for having saved the life of my son, risking his own life. If there is anything that I can do for your son please let me know. Such self sacrificing deeds must be amply rewarded."
Touched by the magnanimous offer of the rich man, the poor farmer replied."I am very grateful to you for your generosity. My son had always wanted to go to a Medical College and become a doctor. But I can’t afford his education because the fees are exorbitant. I’ll be eternally thankful to you if you can see to my son’s education."
" Done !" said the rich man, " I’ll make sure that your son becomes an excellent doctor."
Years rolled by. After the Teheran Conference, the man of this century WINSTON CHURCHILL, the son of that rich man, now a famous world leader, was stricken with pneumonia. The king of the British Empire, acknowledging his sterling qualities and abilities instructed that the best doctor be found to save the Prime Minister. The best doctor in the British Empire was summoned forthwith, who caringly nursed Winston Churchill to good health. The doctor turned out to be DOCTOR ALEXANDER FLEMING, the developer of penicillin.
Winston Churchill looked Dr. Fleming in the eyes and said, "Well, Dr. Fleming, thank you very much. I have heard of people saving the life of a person once, but you have saved me twice. I’m most grateful to you." It was Fleming who had saved Churchill in that pool.
A tour of sacred Buddhist places of worship
A pilgrimage of inspiration
Story and pictures
by K. Don BuddhadasaIt was a successful 13-day pilgrimage of the most holy Buddhist places of worship for 26 Malaysians including the writer, tour organiser Bhikku K. Dhammaratena of the Brickfields Buddhist Maha Vihara and a Malaysian travel agent recently (Nov. 26 to Dec. 8).
(The Hindus and the Buddhists there have coexisted in harmony and have drawn inspirations from each other through the ages.)
And the pilgrimage proper was from day two to day 10. The 26 flew to Kathmandu, Nepal, from Kuala Lumpur via Singapore.
From Kathmandu it was a thrilling tourist coach ride to Hotel Space Mountain in Nagarkot (altitude 2,175 metres, 10km east of Bhaktapur which is 12km east of Kathmandu) for a good rest before the start of the pilgrimage proper.
Bhaktapur is predominantly peasantry and so is most of Nepal which derives its income mostly on tourism.
Nagarkot — a hill resort — is a weekend spot for mountain viewers in quiet and comfort.
The sunrise viewed from this hill present the visitor the ever refreshing memory of the majestic panoramic view of the Himalayan ranges from Dhaulagiri in the West to the Everest in the East.
From Nagarkot the visitors had the same coach ride to Marcopolo Business Hotel in Kathmandu and from there rode to Hotel Nirvana in Lumbini.
The mere utterance of the name "Lumbini" anywhere in the Buddhist world never fails to strike a familiar chord in the hearts of about one-fourth of the world population.
And in turn instantly conjure up in their minds the birth place of Prince Sidhartha Gautama (in 623 BC — later to gain Enlightenment in Buddhagaya, India to become the Buddha).
To much of Asia and even far beyond, the Buddha over 2,500 years ago preached the message of love, compassion, tolerance, co-existence and peace to all so that they too could find spiritual contentment.
Even after 25 centuries, the most endearing feature of the Buddha’s teachings is that they are still relevant today as they were throughout these ages marked by innumerable tragedies, mindless wars, countless natural and man made calamities coupled with frequent inhuman treatments meted out to fellow beings.
The very fact that the Buddha’s message have, like the Pole Star, stayed constant even as earth-shaking events ebbed and flowed with the march of all conquering Time.
For, only Truth has the ability to withstand the test of Time, the vagaries of Mother nature and fickleness of Human Nature.
Emperor Asoka, 300 years after the Maha Parinibbana of the Buddha, had to convene a gathering of Buddhist scholars preceptors, bhikkus and noted laity to sort out the differences being noticed among the adherents of the Buddha’s teaching.
Apart from that Asoka had sent missionaries to many parts of the world including Sri Lanka.
Emperor Asoka to pay homage to the Buddha came all the way from Pataliputra to Lumbini Gardens.
There he erected a pillar and is said to have laid a special stone to mark the exact spot where the Prince Sidhartha was born.
The World Buddhist Conference held at Lumbini recently from Dec. 1 to 2, provided ample opportunities to Nepal to draw the attention of delegations from various countries to the development activities of Lumbini.
That historical meeting paved the way to develop Lumbini into a centre of world peace and Buddhist pilgrimage.
And UNESCO has listed Lumbini in the world heritage sites because of its universal value.
The centre of attraction at Lumbini is the sacred garden and the pond where Queen Maha Maya Devi is believed to have taken a bath before giving birth to Prince Sidhartha.
According to a Nepali tour guide, the success of the Lumbini development plan largely depends on the generous contributions of governments, individuals and organisations of the countries concerned.
The master plan comprises Lumbini Village, International Monastery enclave and sacred garden.
Lumbini Village will have lodges, restaurants and other basic facilities to the visitors.
There will be an auditorium, a research centre, a library, a hospital and a high school which will eventually become a university.
An international committee has been set up to collect donations from various countries and organisations.
Since Nepal opened itself to the outside world, the country has seen a lot of changes, especially in cuisine.
Besides a wide variety of international cuisine, Bhanchha Ghar Restaurant in Kathmandu, serves authentic Nepali dishes and so do other restaurants.
After their fill, Bhanchha Restaurant guests are treated to a cultural show depicting the costumes, traditions and lifestyles of various ethnic groups of Nepal.
The music, the dresses, the soft steps and the sweet smiles are all as Nepali as the food the visitors were served.
Buddhagaya
If the Indian sub-continent were to attract more visitors to its Buddhist places of worship, India and Nepal should improve facilities including roads to such places which are in bad shape especially in Northern India (in Bihar state and Uttar Pradesh state).The sub-continent should also take into consideration Buddhist sensitivities and maintain the sanctity of such places for all time to come. No other religious places of worship should be allowed to be constructed close to or at a hearing distance to such places of Buddhist pilgrimage.
To travel from one point to another in the Buddhist circuit on narrow and bad roads it takes between six and ten hours in these two Indian states.
Nepal is excusable because of its mountainous terrain for there is no room to widen the roads at hill slopes.
The two countries should build guest houses, lodges and cheap but hygienic hotels close to such places and at a walking distance to save travelling time and to meet the budget of low-income Buddhists who cannot afford to stay in four or five star hotels.
At a number of points, it took the Malaysian group between two and three hours by coach to travel from their hotel to a place of a worship.
If it is at a walking distance, pilgrims could spend most of the time at such places after the guided tour and walk back to the hotel just to sleep.
Buddhagaya — in the state of Bihar, reckoned as the most important Buddhist pilgrimage centre, where Prince Siddhartha meditated under the Bodhi tree and attained Enlightenment to become the Buddha — has no more the quiet and peaceful atmosphere it used to be before.
Pilgrims and local Buddhist devotees at the Mahabodhi Vihara (or Mulgandh Kuti Vihara) there cannot observe their precepts in peace or meditate because of the blasting of a loud hailer from nearby mosque which was built there some 75 years ago.
Bihar state government should not have given approval for a mosque to be built just close to that very important Buddhist pilgrimage centre. The place where the Buddha attained Enlightenment is certainly a very important place of worship and a centre of pilgrimage for the Buddhist world.
Of Psychic and Mystic Crafts
by Lakshman Ranatunga
There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, than are dreamt of in your philosophy – ‘Hamlet’, by William Shakespeare (1546 – 1616).Right down through the ages and upto modern times (and the thinking will certainly extend beyond these times, the lure of the unknown and the lore of hidden things have long intrigued the human mind. The limits are literally boundless and it is therefore a never ending quest of phenomena that are either spiritualistic or beyond normal comprehension and therefore mysterious. These stem from man’s indomitable spirit of inquiry or the thirst for knowledge.
Along with such primitive skills as throwing rocks and fashioning flintstone spearheads, man has developed more subtle crafts, as foretelling the weather by the way the birds flew or the winds blew. From these humble beginnings came modern sciences like ballistics and meteorology; and the same applies in many other instances.
Two factors were present in most primitive sciences; the psychic and the occult. The practitioner of a craft usually claimed and often believed that he possessed a special faculty not given to ordinary mortals, enabling him to gain unique results and issue reliable forecasts. He backed this by professing knowledge of secret subjects which he was pledged not to reveal.
This combination of psychic power and occult learning has persisted in modern times. Skilled artists often regard their work as ‘inspired’ or rely on ‘trade secrets’ for results. Thus the pattern is similar, even though many things that once created awe and wonderment are explainable by modern science. However, as often found, there is ever, even after the best explanation by science, a residuum of the unexplainable.
Some of the ancient crafts that have won continued interest and popularity are Astrology and Numerology. So are the ones of more recent origin such as Graphology and Physiognamy.
The predictive crafts are based on studies in correlation of observed phenomena (such as planetary positions in Astrology or the date of birth in the case of numerology), to the outcome of events due to such influences, in studies of a large number of cases. Evidently these crafts cannot be used to predict events with a hundred percent certainity because human affairs or terrestrial events are probalistic (ie. stochastic) and not deterministic in behaviour. Listed below are some of the more common psychic and mystic crafts.
Description of the Crafts
1. Aeromancy: It is the divination from the air and the sky and goes beyond the range of weather prognostications and concentrates more upon cloud shapes, comets, spectral formations or other phenomena not normally in the heavens. Even in modern times, such visions have caused speculation and consternation among viewers.2. Alectryomancy: It is a form of divination whereby a bird, usually a black hen or a white gamecock, is allowed to pick grains of corn from a circle of letters, thus forming words or names with prophetic significance. We have the local version of this in the form of a mynah or a parrot, which is coaxed to pick cards at random and suitable interpretations given to the pickings. This craft is invariably practised by the Gypsy clan and is called "Kurulu Sastraya’.
3. Alchemy: The medivial forerunner of chemistry and is the science of transmuting base metals into gold or silver with the aid of a mysterious substance termed the ‘philosopher’s stone’. Alchemists also claimed to prolong the human life indefinitely by means of a secret elixer.
4. Aleuromancy: It requires slips with answers to question. These are rolled in balls of dough, which are baked, then mixed. One is chosen at random and presumably will be fulfilled. Modern ‘fortune cookies’ are a survival of this ancient ritual.
5. Alomancy: This is divination by using salt, and accounts for some of the modern superstitions, eg. throwing salt over one’s shoulder for good luck or not wasting salt by spilling or careless usage.
6. Alphitomancy: Utilising special cakes that are digestible by persons with a clear conscience, but are distasteful to others.
7. Anthropomancy: This is the long outlawed form of appeasing the gods by offering human sacrifices.
8. Apantomancy: It covers forecasts from chance meetings with animals, birds and other creatures. One version of it is a black cat darting across one’s path when out on a particular mission. It is supposed to protend disaster. A classic example was the founding of Mexico City on the spot where Aztec Soothsayers saw an eagle flying from a cactus carrying a live snake. This represents the Mexican Coat of Arms today. One of our own versions is the ‘one for sorrow, Two for joy ....’ magpie.
9. Astrology: A very ancient and extremely popular craft practised both in the Orient as well as the Occident. Its origin is lost in the mists of time; however almost all Astrological books in India are after Parasara who is said to have lived before the dawn of Kali Yuga (more than 5000 years ago) and also the Chaldean priests of Babylon (5000-6000 years ago) and subsequently developed by equally clever scholars.
In essence, it is an extension of the Science of Astronomy, and may be termed as the study of life’s reaction to the planetary vibrations (movements). It is based on the correlation of planetary configurations and their effect on the earth and its inhabitants. There are different sub-heads to the craft, such as Mundane Astrology, Genethliacal (Personal) Astrology, Political Astrology, and Commercial Astrology. Of these Genethliacal Astrology covers the affairs of individuals and therefore forms a very significant branch.
In the traditional method adopted in this country, the horoscope (ie. the planetary configuration at the time of a given event such as the birth of a child) and the all too significant sub-division of a planetary house into its nine sub-divisions, are prepared on the time given by the interested parties. The characteristics of the individual and future events, interpreted from the horoscope, are not only based on rules propounded by the ancient sages such as Arybhatta, Maharishi Parashar, Varahamihira, Garga, Kalidasa et. alia (or the Orient), but also relies to a considerable extent on the skill and intuition of the interpreter.
Of comparatively recent origin in this country — perhaps no more than 50-60 years ago — is the pre recorded (written) Ola Leaf Horoscopes called the Vakkiam, brought into the country presumably from South India. These are documents supposed to be written versions of the discussions amongst Rishis of yore, chief amongst whom was Agastiya, and who were engaged in a sort of round table question and answer session, in discussing the ‘transmigration of the soul ‘(under study) from birth to birth. Most of what surfaces now seem to be of a dubious nature (as anyone can write them in), the interpreter invariably cornering the subject to coughing out data about himself/herself. Others depend to a great extent on thought reading, or calculated guesses. However, there remains an unexplained residual of readings of the immediate future, which in retrospect are accurate, as was experienced by the writer over four decades ago. In any case a life reading is not tenable, owing to the dominance of free will in any individual.
Astrology offers an open field for charltans, who have brought much disrepute to this craft. It does not in any way offer Englightenment or Salvation. The question then looms large as to the need to consult an Astrologer at all. Certainly an intelligent appraisal of impending pitfalls in one’s life can enable one to mitigate many evil tendencies and thereby lead a more fruitful and meaningful life.
A world about mitigating the evil influences in one’s life would not be cut of place here. The Maharishis (or India) have shown the way to this. They are,
(1) through articles, games, and colours of planets
(2) through Tantric methods, and
(3) through Prayer and Meditation
Tantric methods are divided into three main areas. They are:
(4) Mantras — Prayers
(5) Yantras — Use of Talismans, and
(6) Tantras — A techniques in which natural material is used in a specified way through Mantras under rules and directions to achieve objects and desires.
However, some are content in applying the ‘que sera sera’ attitude towards life. As the proverb goes, "fools obey the planets while wise men control them’
10. Augury: It is the general art of divination, applying chiefly to the interpretation of the future based on signs. From such dire warnings to Julius Caeser to ‘Beware of the Ides of March’, to advising someone not to walk under a ladder or to break journey at the chirping of an innocent geko, are some examples of this.
11. Austromancy: This refers to the divination by a study of the winds.
12. Axiomancy: This requires an axe or a hatchet, which answers questions by its quivers when driven into a post, or points out the direction taken by robbers or other miscreants, according to way the handle falls.
13. Bellomancy: A most ancient type of divination which required the tossing or balancing of arrows.
14. Capnomancy: It is a study and interpretation of smoke rising from a fire and is performed in varied ways.
15. Causiomancy: It involves divination from objects placed in a fire. If they fail to ignite or burn more slowly than anticipated, it becomes a good omen.
16. Chephalomancy: Refers to divination procedures with the skull or head of a goat.
17. Ceraunoscopy: It draws omens from the study of thunder the lightning.
18. Ceroscopy: It is a fascinating form of divination in which melted wax is poured into cold water, forming bubbles, which are duly interpreted.
19. Cleromancy: It is the divination by lot casting using pebbles or other odd objects, often different in colours. It is similar to divination with dice.
20. Cleidomancy: It is worked with a dangling key that answers questions. Quite sometime ago it was tried out on a pregnant girl, in an attempt to answer the question, ‘Boy or Girl?’.
21. Critomancy: It is the study of barley cakes, in the hope of drawing omens from them.
23. Crystallomancy: This is a term used for crystal gazing or the art of ‘scrying’. It is reported that persons who practice this usually see partial pictures or symbols emerging from the milkiness, rather than complete scenes. These take the shape of objects and animals as well. The general purpose in choosing the right crystal or any other object is to avoid tiring the eyes, which may induce a hypnotic condition. Some persons claim that all crystal gazing is a form of autohypnosis, but scryers generally dispute this. In local practice this is referred to as ‘Anjanang Eli Beleema’.
24. Cyclomancy: This pertains to the divination from a turning wheel.
25. Dactylomancy: Similar to Cleidomancy but with the use of a dangling ring indicating words and numbers by its swing.
26. Daphnomancy: Requires listening to the crackling of laurel branches in an open fire, the louder the crackle, the better the omen.
27. Demenomancy: This is divination through the aid of demons and is akin to Necromancy (47).
28. Dice Divination: Fortune telling by dice dates back to antiquity, and the modern version of this divinatory art is used as an intriguing form of entertainment.
29. Gastromancy: This is an ancient form of ventriloquism, with the voice lowered to a dismal tone as though issuing from the ground. Prophetic utterances were thus delivered in a state of trance.
30. Geloscopy: It was the art of divination from the tone of someone’s laughter.
31. Geomancy: It began with the tracing of figures on the ground and was extended to include random dots with a pencil, which were interpreted to accepted designs.
32. Graphology: It is the analysis of character through handwriting, studied in ancient times and given a psychic significance. Over the years the subject has been spruced up, adding greatly to its scientific status. Some of the more significant considerations are: Lines of writing, meaning Level Lines, Upward Lines, Irregular lines etc. etc., Size of Writing, Angles of Writing, Line Spacing, Letter Spacing, Connected Writing, Letter Formations, Letter Variations, Last Letter of Words, Capital Letters, Signatures and such others.
33. Haruspicy, Hiermancy, Hieroscopy
All have to do with observing objects of ancient sacrifices and drawing prophetic conclusions from them.
34. Hydromancy: This is the divination by water and covers a wide range of lesser auguries, such as the colour of water, its ebb and flow, or the ripples produced by pebbles dropped into a pool, an odd number being good and an even number being bad. The modern ‘Tea Leaf’ readings date from this, as Hydromancy also includes a close study of water and the figures formed therein.
35. Ichthyomancy: This is a study of fish as a factor for divination.
36. Lampadomancy: Involves the portents from lights or torches.
37. Lecnomancy: Involves the use of a basin of water for the divinity process.
38. Libanomancy: It requires the use of incense as a means of interpreting omens.
39. Lithnomancy: Uses precious stones of various colours. In the modern version of divination, these are scattered on a flat surface, and whichever reflects light most vividly fulfils the omen. Coloured beads may be used instead of precious stones. Blue indicates good luck soon; Green, realisation of a hope; Red, happiness in love or marriage; Yellow, disaster or betrayal; Purple, a period of sadness; Black or Gray, misfortune.
40. Margaritonomy: It was a procedure utilising pearls which were supposed to bounce upwards beneath an inverted pot if a guilty person approached.
41. Meteoromency: It lists omens dependent on meteors and similar phenomena.
42. Metagnomy: This is a comparatively modern form of intuitive divination covering past, distant scenes of the present, and future events while viewed during a hypnotic trance.
43. Metophoscophy: It is the reading of character from the lines of the forehead. Based on Astrology, it has factors akin to Astrology (9) and Physiognomy (61).
44. Moleosophy: It is a study of moles and is based on the (mystic) hypothesis that moles can be interpreted as indicators of a person’s character and also forecast generalities for the future. The location of the mole, the shape and the colour are considered. The index to interpret moles by colour and location give a wide distribution of them over the body. Such locations can be: The Ankles, Arms, Arm Pits, Back Belly, Bosom, Breast, Buttocks, Cheek, Chin, Ear, Elbow, Eye, Eyebrow, Finger, Foot, Forehead, Groin, Hand, Heel, Hip, Instep, Knee, Legs, Lips, Navel, Neck, Nipple, Nose Shoulder and Wrist.
45. Molybdomancy: It draws mystic inferences from the varied hissings of molten lea
46. Myomancy: Concerns rats and mice, the cries they give, the destruction they cause, all as prophetic tokens.
47. Necromancy: (Also see Sorcery (65).
It has nothing to do with necking, much less to do with romancing! It is magic and much to do with communicating with spirits and the dead and also with ‘dancing the devil’ or devil dancing — Bali, Thovil etc. It also involves the (prosaic) job of exorcising the evil spirit or freeing a person (patient) of the incumbent evil spirit A necromancer is none other than a ‘Kattadirala’.
48. Numerology (Old version — Arithmomancy)
It is the study of numbers and their symbolic significance. It is stated that the history of a person’s life is written in his name and date of birth. Much of the Numerology practised today is attributed to Pythagorus, the famous Greek Mathematician-Philosopher (570-500) B.C. Some writers claim it is derived mainly from ancient Hindu and Arabic teachings, but it was also part of Greek, Babylonian, Hebrew, and Chinese tradition, The Chaldeans, Mayans, Libetains, Pheonicians and Celts are also believed to have developed their own system.
The key numbers of an individual are derived from the date of birth and name. Such numbers are the Destiny number, Talent Number, Heart Number, Name Number, Challenge Number, Habit Number, Birth Number, First Letter, first Vowel, Personality Number, Spirit Number, Fadic Number, Higher Octave Number, Key Number, Compound Number, Single Number, Higher Occult Number and Shadow Number. Character Analysis brings in assessment of Position, Cooperation and Partnership, Talents, Practicality, Freedom, Love, Domesticity Spiritual Talents, Judgement and Organisation, Occult and Humanitarianism etc. from these numbers.
Perhaps the best recent exponent of this subject was Count Louis Hamon, a Norman Nobleman, whose pen name was Cheiro and who was consulted extensively by Royalty and Nobility of the West and was reputed to have the uncanny knack of correct predictions and timely advice to his distinguished clientele.
49. Oculomancy: It is a form of divination from the eyes.
50. Oneiromancy: This is the interpretation of dreams. The first four volumes of the dream dictionary was compiled by a Grecian Soothsayer, Artemodorus, about the year 150 A.D. It was justifically criticised, owing to the broadness of its rules of interpretations. During the centuries that followed, these rules were generally modified and therefore well defined. Some interpretations were traditional, others were guesswork while still others were the comparisons of personal experiences. Then came Freud (1856-1939) with his new and startling theories backed by numerous examples. His school established the sex motif as fundamental to dream interpretations. This rose to popularity in the 1900’s only to produce disagreement in the Freudians themselves, as well as opposition from outside sources.
Modern psychologists have winnowed down dreams into seven categories with their respective interpretations.
In everyday life, when most things go wrong, one can heard it said, ‘I had a bad dream last night’.
51. Onomancy: The interpretation of meaning of names. It has hardly any relevance to the psychic. Some of the given names are obvious in their meaning, e.g.. Victor, Hope, Ananda, Priyadharshani etc. etc.
52. Onychomancy: It is a study of the finger nails in the sunlight, looking for any significant symbols that can be traced.
53. Oomancy, Ooscopy and Ovomancy:
These are terms applied to the ancient method of divination by eggs.
54. Ophiomancy: Deals with the divination by serpents.
55. Ornithomancy: This is concerned with the omens gained by watching the flight of birds.
56. Palmistry: One of the most interesting of psychic sciences which has reached a high state of modern development. It is a study of the human hand and is composed of two parts: Chirosophy — the significance of the lines, marking, and developed areas, and Chirosnomy — an analysis of the shape and formation of the hand, thumb, and fingers. While the two are closely interwoven, the emphasis was originally on Chirosophy, which was closely associated with Astrology; hence the names of planets as applied to the areas called mounts. The lines too were generally interpreted in divinatory terms as with other psychic sciences.
At the same time formations were noted as used by experts in the art of Chirosophy, and their readings became so accurate that scientific surveys were undertaken, resulting in a definitive classification of shapes and indications. Thus, Chirognomy came into vogue.
It is interesting to note that, in recent years, studies of a purely physiological nature have indicated that lines and other features may be affected by retarded development, ill health and other physical causes.
57. Paranormal Phenomena: These are phenomena lying outside the range of normal scientific investigation and are broadly classified into:
(a) Forces within, such as:
1. Electrical interference — projecting energy beyond the body.
2. Psychokinesis (PK) — this is the movement of objects by mental influence without physical contact, an example of which is the Celler effect. Also altering the chances of a particular number showing up in the throw of a six sided unbiased die
3. Clairvoyance — the faculty of perceiving as if by seeing what is happening or exists out of sight
4. Out of body experience — levitation and astral travel
5. Thoughtography — the art of photographing thought
6. Premonition — foreseeing immediate future events
7. Psychic Crime detection — access to criminal minds
(b) Forces without, such as,
(1) Dowsing (or radiesthesia) — the use of the ‘divining rod’ for the determination of ground water, or the pendulum whose directional swing to certain letters was supposed to indicate the name of the person who committed a specific crime
(2) Healing — the curing of psychosomatic diseases by hypnotic methods
(3) Crystal Energy — these are visions of a clairvoyant nature
(4) Crop circles — the phenomena of formations of suppressed vegetations of large diameter in fields, long thought to be of evidence of UFO’s on extraterrestrial visits.
(5) Coincidences — coincidences in the lives of people. Well documented are the weird parallels between US Presidents Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy. Among these: Both were elected in the 60’s (1860 and 1960) respectively, i.e.. 100 years apart: both were assassinated on a Friday, sitting next to their wives, by shots in the head, by assassins born in 1839/1939; both were succeeded in the US Senate by Southern Democrats named Johnson: Lincoln had a secretary named Kennedy and Kennedy had a secretary named Lincoln! Statisticians and scientists attach no significance to such events
(c) Forces Beyond, such as,
(1) Unidentified flying Objects —extraterrestrial travels by alien beings
(2) Making contact — contact with the dead through a medium
(3) Electronic Voice Phenomena — recording voices from beyond, by tuning into a blank wave length’
(4) the contractees — extraterrestrial beings
58. Pegomancy and Pessomancy: It requires spring water or bubbling fountains, while Passomancy involves pebbles
59. Phrenology (nick named Bumpology, after its failure): Phrenology was an offshoot of modern Physiognomy as propounded by Johann Kaspar Lavator (1741-1801). Among Lavatar’s admirers was Franz Joseph Gall who studied medicine in Straasburg, and became a practicing physician in Vienna, where, in 1796, he advanced his theories of phrenology, which he based on extensive research. Here, the skull is divided into three major regions which offered rather obvious interpretations. These were expanded to
to futher sub divisions leading to twenty-six in all. Later workers increased it to thirty and then to thirty six and ultimately increasing it to forty-two. Extensive research culminated in the establishment of a Phrenological museum in New York. The three main divisions of the skull consisted of, (a) the region of instincts found at the lower portion of the back of the head, (b) the sentiment or moral faculties located mostly at the upper portion of the head, and (c) the abilities or intelligent faculties at the front of the head including the forehead.
The science itself reached a peak in its fame due to its widespread acceptance as a physical rather than a psychic science. It did fill a void in a study of the brain structure and functions, having being initiated by Physicians of a comparatively recent date. Later discoveries however refute the more extravagant claims of phrenology. Widespread acceptance of it even upto the point of a test for acceptance for business organisations and the hiring and firing of employees on the basis of individual phrenological findings, and the attraction of too many quacks, saw the decline of the science.
The fact that Gall and others were mistaken as to the functions of the brain did not nullify the correlation between the shape of the skull and certain human traits. So the subject still forms an interesting field of study and research particularly on an experimental state.
60. Phyllorhodomancy: It is an intriguing type of divination dating from ancient Greece. It consists of slapping rose petals against the hands and judging the success of a venture according to the loudness of the sound.
61. Phsiognom: It is the art of studying heads and faces of individuals as a guide to their respective personalities and is of very ancient origin. Facial formation do register every mood from kindness to ferocity: and facial formations are frequently responsible for such expression. As for head shapes, modern anthropologists have typed the skulls of mankind from prehistoric ages upto the present, finding them indicative of various stages in human development. The pioneer in this field was a Swiss mystic, Johann Kaspar Lavatar (1741 - 1801), whose keen power of observation convinced him that the development of human traits could be determined from individual faces.
62. Psychography: It is a form of mysterious writing, usually of a divinatory type. A typical case is that of Maria Gaetena Agnes (1718 - 1799), a famous woman of Milan, Italy, who distinguished herself as a Mathematician and Philosopher. She was at one time Professor of Mathematics at the University of Bologna, and was a habitual sleep-walker. It is said that while in a somnambulist state, she would rise from her bed, walk to her study and complete problems which had baffled her in her waking state. On the mornings after these events, she would be surprised to find on her desk, as if by another hand, elegant solutions to problems she had seemingly left unworked! One of these amusing developments was an equation to a curve referred to as the ‘Witch of Agnesi’, somewhat like a sinusoidal curve with a circle under its peak.
63. Pyromacy and Pyroscopy: They are forms of divination by fire, wherein powered substances are thrown into the flames: if these kindle quickly, it is a good sign.
64. Radiesthesia: One remarkable form of divination for underground water using a simple divining rod, that has continued upto today. In fact some hydrogeologists do use this technique even today to supplement their investigations using modern instruments. The dowsing rod, as it is called, is a forked stick, pliable enough to spread the ends of the fork, thus giving the rod a certain tension. The rod is gripped by the forked ends. One in each fist, with the fingers above and pointed towards the body, so that the stem of the rod extended forward and upwards. The diviner then walks about until the stem of the wand begins to dip down. That is then the place where underground water could be found.
65. Sorcery: It is the use of black magic to bring about curses on another person. In local parlance it is referred to as ‘Hooniyang’ or ‘Kodivina’, and the remedy is ‘Dehi Kepeema’ - slicing of a lime after incantations and rituals and has to be necessarily done by a ‘Kattadirala’ - a Necromancer (47). In West Africa it is referred to as ‘Ju Ju’ and is dreaded by all strata of society, its efficacy having been amply demonstrated. Some resort to Tantric remedies (9) - of Indian origin - to mitigate or avoid evil influences of malefic planets and also black magic. As an example, to invoke a curse on one’s enemy, it is recommended that, ‘A powder be made by burning the head of an Owl, and purified by a specified Mantra 21 times. It is thrown on the head of an enemy. He will be afflicted with UchChatan.’ The latter means separation, extirpation, uprooting, dejection, sadness, indifference, bringing distraction in one’s own mind with the help of incantations, etc., etc. In this whole exercise, one has to necessarily pity the poor owl who has been made to pay a heavy price!
Sorcery appears to be a dying art, probably because evil spirits may be averse to rapid urbanisation. Moreover, there are other modern methods of taking (direct) revenge.
66. ‘Tumbler Talking’: It was practised as Table Tipping in the ages gone by. This modern version is the popular name given for a party past time which provides a form of entertainment. An inverted tumbler is placed on a (preferably) square and smooth wooden board which has the letters of the English alphabet displayed in a circular fashion. The spirit of a dead person is invited to enter the tumbler by tilting it slightly, with the participating members placing their finger tips lightly on the tumbler. The spirit is requested to show its presence by going to the letters YES. Once this is accomplished, the spirit is requested to answer questions put to it by spelling out the answers using the alphabet on the board.
The movement of the tumbler is attributed to ‘spirit aid’. It is strongly suspected that some member of the group is responsible for clamping hard on the tumbler, thus making it possible to ‘spell out’ sentences.
67. Tasseography or Tea Cup Reading: Perhaps one of the simplest and most entertaining forms of divination. It allows for great play of imagination and so called hunches. The tea cup reader interprets the shape and forms made by the tea leaves after the tea has been drunk. There are several ‘rules’ to be followed in the tea chosen, and the cup to be used as well as the spread of the remaining tea leaves. The cup should be very wide at the top, the sides must slant, and the bottom should not be very small. A white cup is preferred. The best results are to be obtained by the use of China tea or a very good grade of tea with the minimum of tea dust.
The person whose fortune is to be read must drink the tea, leaving a little in the bottom of the cup. Then, with the left hand, the cup is moved around from the left to the right, three times, the basic idea being to have a uniform distribution of the tea leaves. Some may even reach the rim of the cup. Time is differentiated by the parts of the cup. The rim represents the present, and the sides predict the future. The bottom is supposed to augur the very distant future. The symbols formed in the cup may range from airplanes to angels, arrows, baskets, birds, cars and so on. Quite obviously one has to stretch one’s imagination to its limits to decipher and interpret the formations, etc. of the tea leaves.
68. Tephremancy: It is the seeking of messages in ashes: tree barks are often burned for that purpose and the diviner looks for symbols as with ‘tea cup’ reading.
69. Tiromancy: It is an old form of divination using cheese.
70. Xylomancy: It is the divination from pieces of wood. Some diviners pick them up from random, interpreting them according to their shape or formation. Others put pieces of wood upon a fire and note the order in which they burn, forming conclusions as to omens, good or bad.
Conclusions
In seeking solutions to situations that baffle him and therefore instil fear in him, man has turned to psychic and mystic crafts. With the evolution of mankind the craft took different forms, varying from such bizarre practices as human sacrifices (Anthrop Omancy - 7) to amusing crafts such as divination from objects placed in a fire (Causiomancy - 15), or procedures adopted with the skull or head of a donkey or goat (Cephlomancy —16). Still more, imagine divination by listening to the crackling of laurel branches in an open fire (Daphnomacy - 26) or slapping rose petals against the hands and judging the success of a venture according to the loudness of the sound (Pyllorhodomancy - 60)! Once no tangible results could be obtained from such practices, they evolved into forms of entertainment (Tumbler Talking - 66 etc.).
Other psychic practices are the more ‘steady’ crafts such as Astrology - 9, Numerology - 48, Palmistry - 56, Paranormal Phenomena - 57 and Graphology - 32, the latter enjoying State patronage, at least partially, in that the form of engagement of (Scientific) personnel as hand writing experts, is quite common.
This article is based on the notes, publications and the like collected by the writer over the past three decades and more and also personal experiences. Some information is very sketchy, whilst others had to necessarily be abridged for brevity.
 |